Unit 2: Cognition

What is the difference between sensation and perception in psychology?

Sensation is the process of detecting stimuli through sensory receptors, while perception is the process of interpreting this sensory information.

What is top-down processing?

top-down processing uses prior knowledge and experiences to interpret stimuli, often allowing quick and efficient understanding of familiar or simple stimuli.

What is the "proofreader illusion" in top-down processing?

The proofreader illusion occurs when we overlook errors in our writing because our brain autocorrects mistakes based on prior knowledge of what we intended to write.

What is bottom-up processing?

Bottom-up processing builds perception from raw sensory data, often used when the stimulus is complex or unfamiliar, and results in slower processing.

What is a schema?

A schema is a mental framework built from past experiences that helps us interpret and organize new information.

What is the difference between a schema and a perceptual set?

A schema is a cognitive structure based on past experiences, while a perceptual set is a mental shortcut influenced by expectations or emotions that helps interpret stimuli quickly.

How do schemas and perceptual sets affect perception?

Schemas and perceptual sets can help us process information quickly, but they can also lead us to interpret things incorrectly based on our emotions or expectations.

What is selective attention?

Selective attention is the process of focusing on one stimulus while filtering out others, such as focusing on a conversation at a noisy party.

What is the cocktail party effect?

The cocktail party effect is when we focus on a specific conversation or sound in a noisy environment, such as hearing your name mentioned at a party.

What is inattentional blindness?

Inattentional blindness is the failure to notice stimuli in our visual field because our attention is focused elsewhere.

What is change blindness?

Change blindness is a type of inattentional blindness where we fail to notice changes in the environment due to our attention being divided.

What is apparent movement in perception?

Apparent movement occurs when we perceive motion even though no movement is happening, such as in stroboscopic motion or the phi phenomenon.

What is the autokinetic effect?

The autokinetic effect is when a stationary point of light in a dark environment appears to move because there are no visual references to stabilize its position.

What is Gestalt psychology?

Gestalt psychology focuses on how humans naturally group elements together to form meaningful patterns, interpreting stimuli as unified wholes rather than individual components.

: What is the figure-ground principle in Gestalt psychology?

The figure-ground principle explains how we distinguish an object (figure) from the background (ground) in our visual field.

What is the continuation principle in Gestalt psychology?

The continuation principle suggests that we naturally follow continuous lines or paths when perceiving stimuli.

What is the closure principle in Gestalt psychology?

The closure principle is when our brain fills in missing information to complete an incomplete object or pattern.

: What is the similarity principle in Gestalt psychology?

The similarity principle explains how we group similar objects or patterns together to form a cohesive unit.

What is the proximity principle in Gestalt psychology?

The proximity principle suggests that objects placed close together are perceived as a single group.

What is the symmetry principle in Gestalt psychology?

The symmetry principle states that objects that are symmetrical are perceived as a unified whole.

What are binocular cues in depth perception?

Binocular cues require both eyes and include convergence (eyes moving inward for close objects) and retinal disparity (slightly different images from each eye creating depth perception).

What are monocular cues in depth perception?

Monocular cues only require one eye and include relative size, interposition, relative height, shading and contour, texture gradient, linear perspective, and motion parallax.

Prototypes:

A prototype is the most typical example of a concept. For instance, if the concept is "ball," basketball or baseball are prototypes. They represent the common features of a ball in your mind and act as a cognitive reference point.

Schemas

A schema is a more complex mental framework that organizes and interprets information based on past experiences and knowledge. They help guide expectations and actions. Schemas are formed and modified through assimilation (fitting new information into existing schemas) and accommodation (changing the schema to incorporate new information).

Executive Functions:

These are cognitive processes that help with goal-directed behaviors, critical thinking, planning, and organization. They are linked to the brain's frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex, relying on skills like language, judgment, and reasoning.

Algorithms:

A step-by-step, systematic approach to solving a problem.

Heuristics:

Mental shortcuts based on past experiences that can save time but may lead to errors. Two types:

• Representative Heuristic: Judging based on how much something represents a typical case.

• Availability Heuristic: Judging based on how easily examples come to mind.

Mental Sets:

A mental set is a framework that relies on past strategies to solve new problems. While it saves time, it may limit creativity. It's different from a schema, which focuses on organizing information.

Priming:

This refers to how exposure to one stimulus influences how we respond to a later stimulus. Types include:

• Repetition Priming: Easier recognition of a stimulus after repeated exposure.

• Semantic Priming: The influence of related words on interpreting another word.

Framing:

• The way information is presented, which influences how we interpret and react to it.

Creativity:

The generation of new, original ideas. This involves divergent thinking (exploring many possible solutions) and convergent thinking (narrowing down to the best solution). Robert Sternberg's five components of creativity:

• Expertise

• Imaginative thinking skills

• Venturesome personality

• Intrinsic motivation

• Creative environment

Fixation:

A cognitive limitation where individuals are stuck thinking in a specific way, such as functional fixedness, where an object is only seen for its traditional use (e.g., using a hammer only to pound nails).

Gambler's Fallacy:

The mistaken belief that past events influence future probabilities.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

The tendency to continue investing in a losing endeavor because of the resources already spent.

Explicit Memory:

Conscious recall, with subtypes:

• Episodic: Personal experiences.

• Semantic: Facts and knowledge.

Implicit Memory

Skills and information learned unconsciously, like procedural memory (how to do tasks).

Prospective Memory

Remembering to do things in the future.

Biological Process - Long-Term Potentiation (LTP):

The strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons, crucial for memory formation.

Working Memory Model:

A model for short-term memory with four components:

• Visual-Spatial Sketchpad: Handles visual and spatial information.

• Phonological Loop: Deals with verbal and auditory information, with two subcomponents:

  • Phonological Store: Holds spoken words.

  • Articulatory Rehearsal Process: Repeats verbal information to keep it active in memory.

Memory Process Overview

: Information moves through three stages: attention (captures the information), working memory (short-term storage), and encoding (transfers it to long-term memory). The process of encoding depends on the level of attention, which affects how well information is retained.

Rehearsal Techniques

• Two main types of rehearsal help retain information:

  • Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it active.

  • Elaborative rehearsal: Connecting new information to existing knowledge for deeper processing.

Levels of Processing Model:

• Structural processing: Focusing on the physical appearance of information (e.g., word shapes).

• Acoustic processing: Focusing on how information sounds.

• Semantic processing: Focusing on the meaning of the information, which leads to better memory retention.

Types of Encoding:

• Visual encoding: Remembering based on visual elements.

• Acoustic encoding: Using sound for memory.

• Tactile encoding: Using physical touch or texture.

• Organizational encoding: Grouping information into sequences or categories.

• Elaborative encoding: Linking new information to prior knowledge.

• Semantic encoding: Focusing on the meaning of the information, which is one of the most effective methods.

Mnemonic Devices

echniques like acronyms, rhymes, and the method of loci (associating information with specific locations) can enhance memory by organizing information more efficiently.

Chunking:

Organizing information into larger units or categories for easier recall.

Distributed Practice

Spacing out study sessions rather than cramming, which enhances memory consolidation and retention.

Testing Effect:

Taking practice tests during study sessions not only assesses understanding but also strengthens memory.

Serial Position Effect:

Information presented at the beginning or end of a list is more likely to be remembered due to the primacy and recency effects.

Sensory Memory:

Stores sensory information briefly (a few seconds).

Short-term/Working Memory:

Holds limited information for short periods, actively processes it.

Long-term Memory:

• Stores information for long periods, has an unlimited capacity.

Memory Consolidation:

The process where short-term memories are transferred into long-term storage, mainly occurring during sleep.

Explicit memories

involve facts and experiences, processed in the hippocampus and frontal lobes.

Implicit memories

(like motor skills) are processed in areas like the cerebellum and basal ganglia.

Emotional events can lead to flashbulb memories. What are these?

(vivid memories of traumatic or emotional events).

Autobiographical memory

involves personal experiences and tends to be more memorable due to its emotional connection.

Amnesia

Loss of memory, which can be anterograde (inability to form new memories) or retrograde (inability to recall past memories).

Alzheimer's Disease

and other cognitive disorders can damage memory storage systems.

Memory Retrieval:

Retrieval is improved when the conditions during recall match the conditions present during encoding.

Context-dependent memory:

Retrieval is easier when you’re in the same environment where you learned the information.

Mood-concurrent memory:

: You’re more likely to recall memories that match your current mood. For example, happy moods may bring up positive memories.

State-dependent memory:

Retrieval improves when you're in the same physical or mental state as when the memory was encoded (e.g., recalling memories from when you were sick).

Associating new info with old:

Connecting new information to something you already know helps strengthen memory.

Good encoding strategies:

Using distributed practice, deep processing, and taking advantage of the testing effect help improve memory recall.

Deep processing

manner of interacting with information that involves elaborate, thoughtful engagement with the materia

Metacognition

Reflecting on your own thinking process helps identify areas of strength and weakness in learning.

Forgetting curve:

Developed by Hermann Ebbinghaus, it shows that forgetting happens quickly after learning but slows down over time. Reviewing information can slow this forgetting.

Encoding failure:

Information may not be stored properly, especially if attention is divided or there are inadequate retrieval cues.

Interference:

Proactive interference (older memories interfering with newer ones) and retroactive interference (new memories interfering with older ones) can affect recall.

Repression:

Psychodynamic theories suggest that we repress memories to protect the ego from stress, especially memories of negative events.

Constructive memory:

: Memories are not exact copies but are reconstructed and can be influenced by assumptions or emotions.

Reconsolidation

The process of altering memories when they're retrieved, which can lead to inaccuracies, known as the misinformation effect.

Intelligence

It’s debated whether intelligence is a general ability (G) or a combination of multiple abilities.

Fluid intelligence:

The ability to reason and solve abstract problems; tends to decrease with age.

Crystallized intelligence:

Knowledge accumulated over time; increases with age.

Fixed mindset

Belief that intelligence is fixed and cannot be changed.

Growth mindset:

Belief that intelligence can be developed through effort and learning.

Alfred Binet

Made IQ Tests: IQ tests measure intellectual development through the concept of "mental age." Today, IQ tests compare an individual’s performance to others of the same age.

Flynn effect

The rise in average IQ scores over time, likely due to better education, nutrition, healthcare, and technology.

What are some common criticisms of IQ Tests?

IQ tests can be biased and influenced by factors like culture and socioeconomic status, which may not reflect an individual’s true potential.

What do IQ Tests need to be in order to be considered reliable?

must be standardized (consistent procedures), reliable (consistent results), and valid (accurately measure what they intend to).

Test-retest reliability:

Consistency when the same person takes the test multiple times.

Split-half reliability:

Consistency within the test itself by comparing two halves of the test.

Content validity:

Whether the test measures what it’s supposed to.

Construct validity:

Whether the test actually measures the trait it’s intended to.

Criterion validity

Whether the test correlates with other measures.

Predictive validity:

Whether the test predicts future performance.

How do cultural biases impact results on tests?

Stereotype threat and stereotype lift can influence how people perform on intelligence tests, potentially affecting outcomes based on race, gender, or socioeconomic status

Achievement tests:

Measure what someone knows at a specific point in time (e.g., AP exams).

Aptitude tests:

Predict future performance and potential (e.g., SAT, ACT).