Ultra AP Psychology

Psychodynamic perspective

focuses on the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences.

Behavioral Perspective (Behaviorism)

believes that psychology should be an objective science that focuses on studying observable behaviors without referencing the mental process. behavioral observation.

Sociocultural Perspective

Focuses on a person’s experiences and influences in their life to better understand how culture shapes individuals. Provides insight into different behaviors across different cultures.

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes our potential as humans to grow as individuals. Emphasizes free will and a person’s desire to move towards self-actualization.

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on how we as individuals interpret, process, and remember information. Emphasizes how people process and store information and how this influences their behavior

Biological Perspective

Seeks to understand the links between our biological and physiological processes. Focuses on the brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, and nervous system’s role in influencing thoughts and behaviors.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Focuses on the interconnectedness of biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding behavior and mental processes.

Evolutionary Perspective

Looks at how natural selection and adaptation influence behavior. proposed by Darwin who argues that our behaviors and bodies were shaped through natural selection.

Cultural Norms, Expectations, and Circumstances

Things that must be considered when looking at experiments on groups or individuals.

Cultural Norms

Shared rules and guidelines within a community that dictate appropriate and acceptable behaviors in society.

Cultural Expectations

Anticipated behaviors and roles individuals are expected to fulfill based on cultural norms.

Cultural Circumstances

The situations in which individuals find themselves in often including socioeconomic factors historical events and the person's geographical location.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to seek out information that aligns with our point of view while at the same time dismissing information that challenges our beliefs. Leads to polarized thinking and prevents individuals from considering information that challenges their perspective

Hindsight Bias

Tendency to think that one could have anticipated the outcome of an event or experiment after it already occurred. Information is less surprising once you know it.

Overconfidence Bias

Tendency to overestimate one's knowledge the likelihood of being correct or an individual's ability to perform certain tasks

Psychological concepts being applied inappropriately.

Has significant ethical, social, and practical implications for misdiagnosing a mental condition.

ineffective or harmful treatments

Relying on outdated stereotypes could lead to …

Experimental Methodology

A systematic approach that is designed to be carried out under controlled conditions with the goal being to test a hypothesis and establish a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Non-Experimental Methodology

Used in research where a controlled experiment is not possible or ethical. Describes behavior but cannot explain it and cannot be used to establish a causal relationship between independent and dependent variables.

Case Study

Examines an individual group of people event or situation to provide detailed information and insight into the topic of Interest

Hawthrone Effect

When the subject of a study alters their behavior due to them being aware that they are being observed. Common problem in case studies

Correlational Study

Allow researchers to gain insight into the relationship between two variables and can help determine the strength of the relationship between the variables. DO NOT show cause and effect.

Third variable problem

When an outside variable a third variable impacts the study. Variables that were not accounted for when creating the parameters of the study. Common problem in correlation studies.

Meta-analysis

Statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic to reach a conclusion.

Naturalistic Observation

when researchers observe individuals in a real-world setting. To try to gather authentic data by observing people in their environments.

Hypothesis

A specific testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Theory

Often based on tested hypotheses; supported by data from research that has been completed and explains a question thought or phenomenon. Allow us to make predictions about how things are and what might happen in the future.

Falsifiable Hypothesis

A hypothesis must be able to be proven wrong.

Operational Definition

Outline the exact procedures used in the study and outlines how the variables are measured or manipulated in the study. Allows for other researchers to replicate the study under the exact same conditions.

Independent Variable

What is being manipulated or controlled by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

The outcome that is being measured.

Confounding Variables

Factors other than the independent variable that could impact the dependent variable. Variables that the researcher was not able to remove from the experiment or study.

Population

The entire group that the research is studying

Sample

The selected group of individuals in a population that are selected to represent the population in the study

Random Sampling

When each individual in a population has an equal chance of participating in the study

Stratified Sampling

When the population is divided into different subcategories and a random sample is taken from each subcategory

Representative Sample

The sample group in the study represents all the different people in the population

Sampling Bias

When the sample group that is representing the population in the study does not represent the entire population accurately

Convenience Sampling

When individuals are selected to participate in a study based on their availability

Generalizability

The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to the larger population

Experimental Group

the group in an experiment that receives the independent variable

Control Group

The group in an experiment that receives a placebo

Placebo

Something that is as close as possible to the independent variable but is missing a key component. Prevents participants from knowing they have not actually received the independent variable.

Random Assignment

When participants are randomly assigned to be part of the control or experimental group

Random Selection

When participants are randomly selected to be part of a study

Quasi-Experiement

An experiment that does not include the random assignment of participants. Cannot determine cause and effect.

Single-blind Procedure

When the participants in the study do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group. Helps prevent the social desirability bias

Social Desirability Bias

When participants skew their answers to create a more favorable impression of themselves

Placebo Effect

When an individual's physical or mental state improves after taking a placebo. Happens because the individual believes they are taking the real drug or substance

Double-blind Procedure

When both the participants and researchers do not know who is in the experimental group or controlled group. Helps counter experimenter bias and social desirability bias.

Experimenter Bias

Occurs when the researcher’s expectations preferences or beliefs influence the outcome of the study

Qualitative Measures

Collect non-numerical data. Provides detailed descriptive insights into participants thoughts feelings and behaviors. Produce information that is descriptive and subjective

Structured Interviews

Where researchers ask open-ended questions that allow the participant to provide an in-depth answer about their perspective and experiences

Quantitative Measures

Collect numerical data that can be statistically analyzed to identify different relationships, patterns, and differences. produce information that is more objective and focuses on measuring variables in a numerical form

Likert Scale

Has participants rate their agreement with statements on a scale to provide the researcher with quantifiable data on the participant's attitudes or opinions

Informed Consent

Participants understand the necessary information to make an informed decision as well as the risks of the study and are free to choose whether or not they want to participate

Informed Assent

when the participant is not legally able to provide full consent on their own. The participant as well as their guardian must agree to the study.

Ethical Studies

Researchers must make sure they create a positive environment for the subjects where the participants can trust the researcher. The study has integrity, transparency, and the participants are debriefed at the end of the study.

American Psychological Association (APA)

Established as the governing board to study behavior. Created the first ethical committee to create standards that all psychological research must follow

Institutional Review Boards (IRB)

Created to protect human participants all colleges and universities use it to conduct any experiments or research studies. Look at proposed research studies that have human participants if they do not believe that people participating in the study are being protected they will reject the study

Institution for Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

Regulates and oversees Animal Care and research teaching and testing with animals

Peer Review

Where other experts in the field assess a study’s methodology, data, and conclusions before it is published

Replication

Other researchers conduct the study again. Allows others to check the original findings and verify the results

Dopamine

________ stimulates the hypothalamus to synthesize hormones and affects alertness and movement.

Serotonin

________ is associated with sexual activity, concentration and attention, moods, and emotions.

Albinism

________ arises from a failure to synthesize or store pigment and also involves abnormal nerve pathways to the brain, resulting in quivering eyes and the inability to perceive depth or three- dimensionality with both eyes.

Paul Broca

________ (1861) performed an autopsy on the brain of a patient, nicknamed Tan, who had lost the capacity to speak, although his mouth and his vocal cords werent damaged and he could still understand language.

Insomnia

________ is the inability to fall asleep and /or stay asleep.

Psychological dependence

________ develops when the person has an intense desire to achieve the drugged state in spite of adverse effects.

Electroencephalograms

________ (EEGs) can be recorded with electrodes on the surface of the skull.

Positron emission tomography

________ (PET) produces color computer graphics that depend on the amount of metabolic activity in the imaged brain region.

Pons

________ generates bursts of action potentials to the forebrain, which is activation.

Cyton

contains cytoplasm and the nucleus, which directs synthesis of such substances as neurotransmitters.

Glutamate

________ is a major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in information processing throughout the cortex and especially memory formation in the hippocampus.

Nonconscious

________ is the level of consciousness devoted to processes completely inaccessible to conscious awareness, such as blood flow, filtering of blood by kidneys, secretion of hormones, and lower- level processing of sensations, such as detecting edges, estimating size and distance of objects, recognizing patterns, and so forth.

Psychoactive drugs

________ are chemicals that can pass through the blood- brain barrier into the brain to alter perception, thinking, behavior, and mood, producing a wide range of effects from mild relaxation or increased alertness to vivid hallucinations.

Glial cells

________ guide the growth of developing neurons, help provide nutrition for and get rid of wastes of neurons, and form an insulating sheath around neurons that speeds conduction.

Functional MRI

________ (fMRI) shows the brain at work at higher resolution than the PET scanner.

Circadian rhythm

________ is a natural, internal process that regulates the sleep- wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours.

Tay Sachs syndrome

________ produces progressive loss of nervous function and death in a baby.

Freud

________ tried to analyze dreams to uncover the unconscious desires (many of them sexual) and fears disguised in dreams.

Stimulants

________ are psychoactive drugs that activate motivational centers and reduce activity in inhibitory centers of the central nervous system by increasing activity of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine neurotransmitter systems.

Unconsciousness

________ is characterized by loss of responsiveness to the environment, resulting from disease, trauma, or anesthesia.

Cerebral cortex center

________ for higher- order processes such as thinking, planning, judgment; receives and processes sensory information and directs movement.

endocrine system

consists of glands that secrete chemical messengers called hormones into your blood.

Hypothalamus

portion of brain part that acts as endocrine gland and produces hormones that stimulate (releasing factors) or inhibit secretion of hormones by the pituitary.

Gamma aminobutyric acid

________ (GABA) inhibits firing of neurons.

Lucid dreaming

the ability to be aware of and direct ones dreams, has been used to help people make recurrent nightmares less frightening.

Hypnosis

________ is an altered state of consciousness characterized by deep relaxation and heightened suggestibility.

dissociation theory

hypnotized individuals experience two or more streams of consciousness cut off from each other.

Antagonists

________ block a receptor site, inhibiting the effect of the neurotransmitter or agonist.

Tolerance

decreasing responsivity to a drug.

Endocrine

glands include the pineal gland, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland in your brain; the thyroid and parathyroids in your neck; the adrenal glands atop your kidneys; pancreas near your stomach; and either testes or ovaries.

Withdrawal symptoms

________ include intense craving for the drug and effects opposite to those the drug usually induces.

Heritability

________ is the proportion of variation among individuals in a population that is due to genetic causes.

Agonists

________ may mimic a neurotransmitter and bind to its receptor site to produce the effect of the neurotransmitter.

Reflex

________ involves impulse conduction over a few (perhaps three) neurons.

Narcotics

________ are analgesics (pain reducers) that work by depressing the central nervous system.

Preconscious

________ is the level of consciousness that is outside of awareness but contains feelings and memories that you can easily bring into conscious awareness.

Depressants

________ are psychoactive drugs that reduce the activity of the central nervous system and induce relaxation.