Unit 0 - Psychology

Unit 0 - basis of scientific process, methods of research, basic psychology

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it; for example, thinking you knew the outcome of a sports game after it has ended.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate one's abilities or knowledge; for example, believing you will ace a test without studying because you feel confident in your knowledge.

Theory

A well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can incorporate laws, hypotheses, and facts.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Sampling Bias

A systematic error that occurs when the sample is not representative of the population being studied.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Operational Definition

A clear and precise definition of a variable that allows it to be measured or quantified in a study, in order to be able to replicate.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to see if the original findings can be reproduced.

Framing Effect

The influence that the way a question is posed can have on respondents' answers.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured/not manipulated in an experiment; it is affected by the independent variable.

Experimental Group (EG)

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention.

Control Group (CG)

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment and is used for comparison.

Positive Correlation

A relationship between two variables where both increase or decrease together; for example, height and weight.

Negative Correlation

A relationship between two variables where one increases as the other decreases; for example, exercise and body fat percentage.

Placebo

A term used to deceive test subjects to create a single-blind experiment.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists.

Single-Blind Procedure

An experimental design where participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental design where neither the participants nor the researchers know who is in the experimental or control group.

Random Sampling

The process of selecting a sample from a population in such a way that every individual has an equal chance of being chosen.

Random Assignment

The process of assigning participants to different groups in an experiment randomly to ensure each group is similar.

Ethical Principles

Guidelines established by the APA to ensure the welfare and rights of research participants, including protection from harm, informed consent, confidentiality, and debrief.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A local/institutional committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met, protecting the rights and welfare of participants.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistical methods that summarize and describe the characteristics of a data set.

Histogram

A graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data using bars to show frequency.

Measures of Central Tendency

Statistical measures that describe the center of a data set, including mode, mean, and median.

Mode

The value that appears most frequently in a data set.

Mean

The average of a data set, calculated by adding all values and dividing by the number of values.

Median

The middle value in a data set when the values are arranged in order.

Measures of Variation

Statistical measures that describe the spread or dispersion of a data set, including range and standard deviation.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Standard Deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Descriptive vs Inferential Statistics

Descriptive statistics summarize data, while inferential statistics make predictions or inferences about a population based on a sample.

Statistical Significance

A measure of whether the results of a study are likely due to chance or if they reflect a true effect.

Skewed Distribution

A distribution that is not symmetrical, where one tail is longer or fatter than the other, which can mislead interpretations of data.

Normal Curve

A bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution of many types of data, where most values cluster around the mean.

Confounding Variable

A secondary factor in a study that influences both independent and dependent variables, potentially causing incorrect conclusions about their relationship and creating a false impression of correlation or causation if not controlled.

Correlational Study

A type of research method that examines the relationship between two or more variables. It does not manipulate variables but instead observes them in their natural settings to identify patterns or associations.

Quantitative Measures

These are numerical values that provide a way to express and analyze data objectively. They allow for comparison and statistical analysis, often represented in units such as mass, volume, or concentration.

Qualitative Measures

Research methods that collect non-numerical data to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. These measures often involve interviews, open-ended surveys, or observations, focusing on the depth of understanding rather than statistical analysis.

Naturalistic Observation

Method of research where behavior is observed in its natural environment without manipulation or control.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event used to explore complex real-life issues. It collects detailed qualitative and quantitative data from various sources, like interviews and observations, for comprehensive insights. However, findings may lack generalizability to larger populations.

Generalizability

Refers to the extent research results can be extended beyond the study sample. Factors include sample size, diversity, and study design. High generalizability increases the relevance of findings in real-world applications.

Meta-Analysis

Method involves systematically reviewing and synthesizing quantitative data from various studies to enhance statistical power and provide a more comprehensive understanding of a specific research question. It helps to resolve discrepancies among studies and offers insights that individual studies may not reveal.