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Cognition
Mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, and using knowledge (e.g., thinking, memory).
Metacognition
Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes (thinking about thinking).
Concepts
Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people (e.g., 'chair').
Prototype
The best example of a category (e.g., a robin is a prototypical bird).
Schemas
Mental frameworks for organizing information (e.g., restaurant schema: menus, servers, food).
Assimilation
Incorporating new info into existing schemas (e.g., calling all four-legged animals 'dog').
Accommodation
Modifying schemas to include new information (e.g., learning a cat isn’t a dog).
Convergent Thinking
Focused, logical reasoning aimed at finding one correct solution (e.g., solving math problems).
Divergent Thinking
Creative thinking generating multiple solutions (e.g., brainstorming uses for a brick).
Functional Fixedness
Inability to see new uses for an object (e.g., viewing a paperclip only as a fastener).
Executive Functions
High-level cognitive processes for planning, decision-making, and self-control.
Algorithm
Step-by-step procedure guaranteeing a solution (e.g., math formulas).
Heuristic
Shortcut strategies for problem-solving (faster but prone to errors).
Availability Heuristic
Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., fear of plane crashes).
Representative Heuristic
Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype (e.g., stereotyping).
Mental Set
Tendency to approach problems in familiar ways, even if not effective.
Priming
Activation of associations in memory (e.g., seeing 'yellow' primes thinking of 'banana').
Framing
Presentation of information influencing decision-making (e.g., 90% success vs. 10% failure).
Gambler’s Fallacy
Belief that past events influence independent probabilities (e.g., 'due' for a win).
Sunken-Cost Fallacy
Continuing effort due to previous investment, even if unwise (e.g., staying in a bad movie).
Long-Term Potentiation
Strengthening of neural connections through repeated activation; basis for learning/memory.
Explicit Memory
Memory requiring conscious recall (e.g., facts, experiences).
Implicit Memory
Memory not requiring conscious recall (e.g., skills, conditioning).
Semantic Memory
General knowledge about the world (e.g., capitals of countries).
Episodic Memory
Personal experiences and events (e.g., birthday parties).
Procedural Memory
Memory for skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike).
Encoding
Process of inputting information into memory.
Storage
Maintaining information in memory over time.
Retrieval
Accessing stored information.
Working Memory Model
Includes central executive, phonological loop (verbal), visuospatial sketchpad (visual), episodic buffer (integration).
Multi-Store Model
Memory flows through sensory, short-term, and long-term stores.
Sensory Memory
Immediate, brief recording of sensory info.
Iconic Memory
Visual sensory memory lasting ~0.5 seconds.
Echoic Memory
Auditory sensory memory lasting 3–4 seconds.
Short-Term Memory
Limited capacity (~7 items); lasts ~20–30 seconds.
Long-Term Memory
Unlimited capacity, permanent storage.
Automatic vs Effortful Processing
Unconscious encoding (e.g., time) vs. intentional effort (e.g., studying).
Levels of Processing Model
Deep (meaning-based) processing improves retention over shallow (surface-level).
Method of Loci
Visualizing info in familiar locations to enhance memory.
Chunking
Grouping info into manageable units (e.g., phone numbers).
Spacing Effect
Spaced practice improves retention compared to cramming.
Serial Position Effect
Better recall for items at the start (primacy) and end (recency) of lists.
Maintenance Rehearsal
Repeating info to hold in short-term memory.
Elaborative Rehearsal
Associating new info with existing knowledge for better encoding.
Autobiographical Memory
Memories of one’s life events and personal experiences.
Retrograde Amnesia
Inability to recall old memories.
Anterograde Amnesia
Inability to form new memories.
Infantile Amnesia
Lack of memory for events before age 3–4.
Recall vs Recognition
Retrieval with no cues (e.g., essay test) vs. identifying info (e.g., multiple choice).
Retrieval Cues
Stimuli aiding memory recall.
Context-Dependent Memory
Better recall when in the same environment as encoding.
State-Dependent Memory
Recall improves when in the same physical or emotional state.
Mood-Congruent Memory
Recall memories matching current mood.
Testing Effect
Enhanced memory after retrieving info, not just rereading.
Forgetting Curve
Rapid loss of info initially, then levels off over time.
Proactive Interference
Old info interferes with new learning.
Retroactive Interference
New info interferes with recalling old info.
Misinformation Effect
Memory distortion from misleading info.
Source Amnesia
Attributing memory to the wrong source.
Repression
Unconscious forgetting of traumatic experiences.
Imagination Inflation
Increased confidence in false memories after imagining events.
General Intelligence (g)
Spearman’s theory of a single underlying intelligence factor.
Construct Validity
Whether a test measures what it claims to measure.
Predictive Validity
How well a test predicts future performance.
Test-Retest Reliability
Consistency of scores over time.
Split-Half Reliability
Consistency between halves of a test.
Stereotype Threat
Anxiety from negative stereotypes lowering performance.
Stereotype Lift
Boost in performance from positive stereotypes.
Achievement Test
Measures learned knowledge/skills (e.g., AP exams).
Aptitude Test
Measures potential to learn (e.g., SAT).
Fixed Mindset
Belief that abilities are unchangeable.
Growth Mindset
Belief that abilities can improve with effort.
Note 
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