AP Psychology Unit 2: Cognition

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72 Terms

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Cognition

Mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, and using knowledge (e.g., thinking, memory).

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Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes (thinking about thinking).

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Concepts

Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people (e.g., 'chair').

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Prototype

The best example of a category (e.g., a robin is a prototypical bird).

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Schemas

Mental frameworks for organizing information (e.g., restaurant schema: menus, servers, food).

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Assimilation

Incorporating new info into existing schemas (e.g., calling all four-legged animals 'dog').

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Accommodation

Modifying schemas to include new information (e.g., learning a cat isn’t a dog).

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Convergent Thinking

Focused, logical reasoning aimed at finding one correct solution (e.g., solving math problems).

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Divergent Thinking

Creative thinking generating multiple solutions (e.g., brainstorming uses for a brick).

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Functional Fixedness

Inability to see new uses for an object (e.g., viewing a paperclip only as a fastener).

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Executive Functions

High-level cognitive processes for planning, decision-making, and self-control.

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Algorithm

Step-by-step procedure guaranteeing a solution (e.g., math formulas).

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Heuristic

Shortcut strategies for problem-solving (faster but prone to errors).

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Availability Heuristic

Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., fear of plane crashes).

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Representative Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype (e.g., stereotyping).

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Mental Set

Tendency to approach problems in familiar ways, even if not effective.

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Priming

Activation of associations in memory (e.g., seeing 'yellow' primes thinking of 'banana').

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Framing

Presentation of information influencing decision-making (e.g., 90% success vs. 10% failure).

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Gambler’s Fallacy

Belief that past events influence independent probabilities (e.g., 'due' for a win).

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Sunken-Cost Fallacy

Continuing effort due to previous investment, even if unwise (e.g., staying in a bad movie).

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Long-Term Potentiation

Strengthening of neural connections through repeated activation; basis for learning/memory.

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Explicit Memory

Memory requiring conscious recall (e.g., facts, experiences).

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Implicit Memory

Memory not requiring conscious recall (e.g., skills, conditioning).

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Semantic Memory

General knowledge about the world (e.g., capitals of countries).

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Episodic Memory

Personal experiences and events (e.g., birthday parties).

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Procedural Memory

Memory for skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike).

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Encoding

Process of inputting information into memory.

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Storage

Maintaining information in memory over time.

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Retrieval

Accessing stored information.

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Working Memory Model

Includes central executive, phonological loop (verbal), visuospatial sketchpad (visual), episodic buffer (integration).

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Multi-Store Model

Memory flows through sensory, short-term, and long-term stores.

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Sensory Memory

Immediate, brief recording of sensory info.

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Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory lasting ~0.5 seconds.

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Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory lasting 3–4 seconds.

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Short-Term Memory

Limited capacity (~7 items); lasts ~20–30 seconds.

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Long-Term Memory

Unlimited capacity, permanent storage.

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Automatic vs Effortful Processing

Unconscious encoding (e.g., time) vs. intentional effort (e.g., studying).

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Levels of Processing Model

Deep (meaning-based) processing improves retention over shallow (surface-level).

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Method of Loci

Visualizing info in familiar locations to enhance memory.

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Chunking

Grouping info into manageable units (e.g., phone numbers).

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Spacing Effect

Spaced practice improves retention compared to cramming.

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Serial Position Effect

Better recall for items at the start (primacy) and end (recency) of lists.

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Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating info to hold in short-term memory.

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Elaborative Rehearsal

Associating new info with existing knowledge for better encoding.

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Autobiographical Memory

Memories of one’s life events and personal experiences.

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Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall old memories.

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Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories.

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Infantile Amnesia

Lack of memory for events before age 3–4.

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Recall vs Recognition

Retrieval with no cues (e.g., essay test) vs. identifying info (e.g., multiple choice).

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Retrieval Cues

Stimuli aiding memory recall.

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Context-Dependent Memory

Better recall when in the same environment as encoding.

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State-Dependent Memory

Recall improves when in the same physical or emotional state.

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Mood-Congruent Memory

Recall memories matching current mood.

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Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving info, not just rereading.

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Forgetting Curve

Rapid loss of info initially, then levels off over time.

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Proactive Interference

Old info interferes with new learning.

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Retroactive Interference

New info interferes with recalling old info.

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Misinformation Effect

Memory distortion from misleading info.

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Source Amnesia

Attributing memory to the wrong source.

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Repression

Unconscious forgetting of traumatic experiences.

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Imagination Inflation

Increased confidence in false memories after imagining events.

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General Intelligence (g)

Spearman’s theory of a single underlying intelligence factor.

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Construct Validity

Whether a test measures what it claims to measure.

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Predictive Validity

How well a test predicts future performance.

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Test-Retest Reliability

Consistency of scores over time.

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Split-Half Reliability

Consistency between halves of a test.

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Stereotype Threat

Anxiety from negative stereotypes lowering performance.

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Stereotype Lift

Boost in performance from positive stereotypes.

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Achievement Test

Measures learned knowledge/skills (e.g., AP exams).

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Aptitude Test

Measures potential to learn (e.g., SAT).

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Fixed Mindset

Belief that abilities are unchangeable.

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Growth Mindset

Belief that abilities can improve with effort.