AP Psychology Unit 2: Cognition

Cognition

Mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, and using knowledge (e.g., thinking, memory).

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes (thinking about thinking).

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people (e.g., 'chair').

Prototype

The best example of a category (e.g., a robin is a prototypical bird).

Schemas

Mental frameworks for organizing information (e.g., restaurant schema: menus, servers, food).

Assimilation

Incorporating new info into existing schemas (e.g., calling all four-legged animals 'dog').

Accommodation

Modifying schemas to include new information (e.g., learning a cat isn’t a dog).

Convergent Thinking

Focused, logical reasoning aimed at finding one correct solution (e.g., solving math problems).

Divergent Thinking

Creative thinking generating multiple solutions (e.g., brainstorming uses for a brick).

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see new uses for an object (e.g., viewing a paperclip only as a fastener).

Executive Functions

High-level cognitive processes for planning, decision-making, and self-control.

Algorithm

Step-by-step procedure guaranteeing a solution (e.g., math formulas).

Heuristic

Shortcut strategies for problem-solving (faster but prone to errors).

Availability Heuristic

Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., fear of plane crashes).

Representative Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype (e.g., stereotyping).

Mental Set

Tendency to approach problems in familiar ways, even if not effective.

Priming

Activation of associations in memory (e.g., seeing 'yellow' primes thinking of 'banana').

Framing

Presentation of information influencing decision-making (e.g., 90% success vs. 10% failure).

Gambler’s Fallacy

Belief that past events influence independent probabilities (e.g., 'due' for a win).

Sunken-Cost Fallacy

Continuing effort due to previous investment, even if unwise (e.g., staying in a bad movie).

Long-Term Potentiation

Strengthening of neural connections through repeated activation; basis for learning/memory.

Explicit Memory

Memory requiring conscious recall (e.g., facts, experiences).

Implicit Memory

Memory not requiring conscious recall (e.g., skills, conditioning).

Semantic Memory

General knowledge about the world (e.g., capitals of countries).

Episodic Memory

Personal experiences and events (e.g., birthday parties).

Procedural Memory

Memory for skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike).

Encoding

Process of inputting information into memory.

Storage

Maintaining information in memory over time.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information.

Working Memory Model

Includes central executive, phonological loop (verbal), visuospatial sketchpad (visual), episodic buffer (integration).

Multi-Store Model

Memory flows through sensory, short-term, and long-term stores.

Sensory Memory

Immediate, brief recording of sensory info.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory lasting ~0.5 seconds.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory lasting 3–4 seconds.

Short-Term Memory

Limited capacity (~7 items); lasts ~20–30 seconds.

Long-Term Memory

Unlimited capacity, permanent storage.

Automatic vs Effortful Processing

Unconscious encoding (e.g., time) vs. intentional effort (e.g., studying).

Levels of Processing Model

Deep (meaning-based) processing improves retention over shallow (surface-level).

Method of Loci

Visualizing info in familiar locations to enhance memory.

Chunking

Grouping info into manageable units (e.g., phone numbers).

Spacing Effect

Spaced practice improves retention compared to cramming.

Serial Position Effect

Better recall for items at the start (primacy) and end (recency) of lists.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating info to hold in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Associating new info with existing knowledge for better encoding.

Autobiographical Memory

Memories of one’s life events and personal experiences.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall old memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories.

Infantile Amnesia

Lack of memory for events before age 3–4.

Recall vs Recognition

Retrieval with no cues (e.g., essay test) vs. identifying info (e.g., multiple choice).

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli aiding memory recall.

Context-Dependent Memory

Better recall when in the same environment as encoding.

State-Dependent Memory

Recall improves when in the same physical or emotional state.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Recall memories matching current mood.

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving info, not just rereading.

Forgetting Curve

Rapid loss of info initially, then levels off over time.

Proactive Interference

Old info interferes with new learning.

Retroactive Interference

New info interferes with recalling old info.

Misinformation Effect

Memory distortion from misleading info.

Source Amnesia

Attributing memory to the wrong source.

Repression

Unconscious forgetting of traumatic experiences.

Imagination Inflation

Increased confidence in false memories after imagining events.

General Intelligence (g)

Spearman’s theory of a single underlying intelligence factor.

Construct Validity

Whether a test measures what it claims to measure.

Predictive Validity

How well a test predicts future performance.

Test-Retest Reliability

Consistency of scores over time.

Split-Half Reliability

Consistency between halves of a test.

Stereotype Threat

Anxiety from negative stereotypes lowering performance.

Stereotype Lift

Boost in performance from positive stereotypes.

Achievement Test

Measures learned knowledge/skills (e.g., AP exams).

Aptitude Test

Measures potential to learn (e.g., SAT).

Fixed Mindset

Belief that abilities are unchangeable.

Growth Mindset

Belief that abilities can improve with effort.