AP Psychology Unit 2: Cognition

1. Cognition: Mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, and using knowledge (e.g., thinking, memory).

2. Metacognition: Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes (thinking about thinking).

3. Concepts: Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people (e.g., "chair").

4. Prototype: The best example of a category (e.g., a robin is a prototypical bird).

5. Schemas: Mental frameworks for organizing information (e.g., restaurant schema: menus, servers, food).

6. Assimilation: Incorporating new info into existing schemas (e.g., calling all four-legged animals "dog").

7. Accommodation: Modifying schemas to include new information (e.g., learning a cat isn’t a dog).

8. Convergent Thinking: Focused, logical reasoning aimed at finding one correct solution (e.g., solving math problems).

9. Divergent Thinking: Creative thinking generating multiple solutions (e.g., brainstorming uses for a brick).

10. Functional Fixedness: Inability to see new uses for an object (e.g., viewing a paperclip only as a fastener).

11. Executive Functions: High-level cognitive processes for planning, decision-making, and self-control.

12. Algorithm: Step-by-step procedure guaranteeing a solution (e.g., math formulas).

13. Heuristic: Shortcut strategies for problem-solving (faster but prone to errors).

14. Availability Heuristic: Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., fear of plane crashes).

15. Representative Heuristic: Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype (e.g., stereotyping).

16. Mental Set: Tendency to approach problems in familiar ways, even if not effective.

17. Priming: Activation of associations in memory (e.g., seeing “yellow” primes thinking of “banana”).

18. Framing: Presentation of information influencing decision-making (e.g., 90% success vs. 10% failure).

19. Gambler’s Fallacy: Belief that past events influence independent probabilities (e.g., “due” for a win).

20. Sunken-Cost Fallacy: Continuing effort due to previous investment, even if unwise (e.g., staying in a bad movie).

21. Long-Term Potentiation: Strengthening of neural connections through repeated activation; basis for learning/memory.

22. Explicit Memory: Memory requiring conscious recall (e.g., facts, experiences).

23. Implicit Memory: Memory not requiring conscious recall (e.g., skills, conditioning).

24. Semantic Memory: General knowledge about the world (e.g., capitals of countries).

25. Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and events (e.g., birthday parties).

26. Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike).

27. Encoding: Process of inputting information into memory.

28. Storage: Maintaining information in memory over time.

29. Retrieval: Accessing stored information.

30. Working Memory Model: Includes central executive, phonological loop (verbal), visuospatial sketchpad (visual), episodic buffer (integration).

31. Multi-Store Model: Memory flows through sensory, short-term, and long-term stores.

32. Sensory Memory: Immediate, brief recording of sensory info.

33. Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory lasting ~0.5 seconds.

34. Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory lasting 3–4 seconds.

35. Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity (~7 items); lasts ~20–30 seconds.

36. Long-Term Memory: Unlimited capacity, permanent storage.

37. Automatic vs Effortful Processing: Unconscious encoding (e.g., time) vs. intentional effort (e.g., studying).

38. Levels of Processing Model: Deep (meaning-based) processing improves retention over shallow (surface-level).

39. Method of Loci: Visualizing info in familiar locations to enhance memory.

40. Chunking: Grouping info into manageable units (e.g., phone numbers).

41. Spacing Effect: Spaced practice improves retention compared to cramming.

42. Serial Position Effect: Better recall for items at the start (primacy) and end (recency) of lists.

43. Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating info to hold in short-term memory.

44. Elaborative Rehearsal: Associating new info with existing knowledge for better encoding.

45. Autobiographical Memory: Memories of one’s life events and personal experiences.

46. Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall old memories.

47. Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories.

48. Infantile Amnesia: Lack of memory for events before age 3–4.

49. Recall vs Recognition: Retrieval with no cues (e.g., essay test) vs. identifying info (e.g., multiple choice).

50. Retrieval Cues: Stimuli aiding memory recall.

51. Context-Dependent Memory: Better recall when in the same environment as encoding.

52. State-Dependent Memory: Recall improves when in the same physical or emotional state.

53. Mood-Congruent Memory: Recall memories matching current mood.

54. Testing Effect: Enhanced memory after retrieving info, not just rereading.

55. Forgetting Curve: Rapid loss of info initially, then levels off over time.

56. Proactive Interference: Old info interferes with new learning.

57. Retroactive Interference: New info interferes with recalling old info.

58. Misinformation Effect: Memory distortion from misleading info.

59. Source Amnesia: Attributing memory to the wrong source.

60. Repression: Unconscious forgetting of traumatic experiences.

61. Imagination Inflation: Increased confidence in false memories after imagining events.

62. General Intelligence (g): Spearman’s theory of a single underlying intelligence factor.

63. Construct Validity: Whether a test measures what it claims to measure.

64. Predictive Validity: How well a test predicts future performance.

65. Test-Retest Reliability: Consistency of scores over time.

66. Split-Half Reliability: Consistency between halves of a test.

67. Stereotype Threat: Anxiety from negative stereotypes lowering performance.

68. Stereotype Lift: Boost in performance from positive stereotypes.

69. Achievement Test: Measures learned knowledge/skills (e.g., AP exams).

70. Aptitude Test: Measures potential to learn (e.g., SAT).

71. Fixed Mindset: Belief that abilities are unchangeable.

72. Growth Mindset: Belief that abilities can improve with effort.