AP Psychology Fall Final Exam Review

scientific method

A systematic approach used by psychologists to study psychology.

structuralism

The process of examining and measuring one's own thoughts and mental activities as referred to by Wundt.

psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

behavior

Outward or overt actions and reactions.

systematic approach

A method used by psychologists to gather information and reduce biases in observations.

Gestalt psychology

The phrase 'The whole is more than the sum of its parts' is most closely associated with this school of psychology.

critical thinking

Making reasoned judgments based on information.

goals of the scientific approach

Explanation, prediction, description, and control.

theory

A general explanation for a set of observations and facts.

correlation

A measure of how strongly two variables are related to one another.

placebos

Fake treatments or inactive substances used as a control in an experiment.

statistics

Necessary to help interpret the outcomes of a scientific study.

informed consent

Research participants are given enough information about a study to make a reasonable decision about participation.

research guidelines

Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision about participation.

neuron

Specialized cells in the nervous system that send and receive messages.

dendrites

Tree-shaped components of a neuron that receive messages from other cells.

axon

The component of a neuron that sends messages to other cells.

types of cells in the brain

Neurons and glial cells.

nerves

Bundles of axons found in the peripheral nervous system.

all-or-none principle

Neurons either fire at full strength or not at all.

neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross a space between neurons.

acetylcholine

The neurotransmitter found at the synapse between neurons and muscle cells.

serotonin

The neurotransmitter associated with sleep, mood, appetite, and anxiety.

GABA

The neurotransmitter that ONLY produces inhibitory effects in the brain.

nervous system

A network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body.

neuroscience

A branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and functioning of the nervous system.

myelin

A protective fatty substance generated by special types of glial cells.

neurons firing

The process of transmitting messages in an all-or-none fashion.

positron emission tomography

A technique that involves injecting a glucose-like substance containing a radioactive element to analyze biochemical activity in the brain.

electroencephalograph

A device used to record the activity of the cortex just below the skull.

functional MRI (fMRI)

A technique that provides a way to measure the functioning and activity of the brain.

PET scan

A diagnostic tool that involves injecting a person with radioactive glucose to map brain function.

medulla

The first swelling at the top of the spinal cord, at the very bottom of the brain.

reticular formation

A brain structure that keeps the person alert and aroused.

cerebellum

The area of the hindbrain that coordinates movements and fine motor skills.

limbic system

A brain system that coordinates emotion, motivation, memory, and learning.

hippocampus

A brain structure crucial for memory formation.

amygdala

A brain structure involved in fear response and emotional regulation.

cortex

The outermost part of the brain.

corpus callosum

The thick band of fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain.

somatosensory cortex

The area located in the parietal lobes responsible for processing sensory information.

frontal lobes

The brain region responsible for executive functions such as self-awareness, restraint, planning, and time management.

Broca's area

The area located in the left frontal lobe responsible for speech production.

Wernicke's aphasia

A condition characterized by impaired language comprehension.

right hemisphere functions

Tasks such as pattern recognition that are more likely performed by the right hemisphere in most people.

left-brained vs right-brained

The stereotype that oversimplifies brain function; there are no identifiable functions associated with one hemisphere or the other.

medulla's function

Controls life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and swallowing.

pons

The brain area that influences sleep and dreaming.

thalamus

The brain structure through which most senses are processed, except for the sense of smell.

cerebral cortex

The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher-level functions such as thought and action.

central nervous system

The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord.

afferent nerves

Nerves that carry sensory information to the central nervous system (CNS).

efferent signals

Signals that generally travel outward from the central nervous system.

neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change in response to new experiences.

peripheral nervous system

The part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord.

autonomic nervous system

A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions.

sympathetic nervous system

A division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stress-related activities.

parasympathetic nervous system

A division of the autonomic nervous system that conserves energy and restores the body to a calm state.

sensation

The process of converting external stimuli into neural activity.

synesthesia

A sensory phenomenon where stimulation of one sense leads to automatic experiences in another sense.

absolute threshold

The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.

just noticeable difference

The smallest change in a stimulus that can be detected.

subliminal perception

When a person's behavior is affected by a stimulus that is below their absolute threshold for detection.

sensory adaptation

The process by which sensitivity to a stimulus decreases over time as it is continuously present.

hue

The aspect of color that is determined by the wavelength of light.

brightness

The perception of the intensity of light.

saturation

The perception of the purity of a color.

optic nerve

The nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.

fovea

The central area of the retina where light rays are most sharply focused.

cones

Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision.

trichromatic theory

The theory that color perception is based on the activity of three types of cones, each sensitive to different wavelengths.

primary colors of light

Red, blue, and green, which can be combined to create a broad spectrum of colors.

temporal lobe

A region of the brain associated with processing auditory information and memory.

occipital lobe

The part of the brain responsible for visual processing.

retina

The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye that converts light into neural signals.

afterimage

A reversed visual sensation that persists after the initial stimulus is removed.

color blindness

The inability to perceive differences in color, with red-green color blindness being the most common form.

loudness

The dimension of auditory experience related to the intensity of a sound wave.

frequency limits of human hearing

20 to 20,000 Hz.

hearing damage threshold

Potential hearing damage can occur after a sound reaches 90 decibels or so.

pathway of soundwaves

Pinna → hammer → anvil → oval window → cochlea → auditory nerve.

middle ear structures

The stapes, incus, and hammer are found in the middle ear, but not the cochlea.

hair cells location

Hair cells are located in the organ of Corti in the human ear.

place theory of pitch

Stimulation of hair cells in different locations accounts for differences in pitch perception.

conduction hearing impairment

An impairment most likely located in the eardrum.

tinnitus

A constant ringing in the ears, often diagnosed after prolonged exposure to loud sounds.

cochlear implant

A device that would be most helpful for someone suffering from nerve hearing impairment.

taste receptor cells

Better known as taste buds.

taste buds location

Taste buds are contained inside papillae.

brothy taste sensation

Umami.

variation in taste sensitivity

People can have as few as 500 taste buds or as many as 10,000 taste buds.

texture of food processing

Information about the texture of food is processed in the somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe.

olfaction

The ability to smell odors.

pathway of olfactory information

Olfactory receptors → olfactory bulb → olfactory nerve → brain.

olfaction uniqueness

Olfactory information does not pass through the thalamus on its way to the cortex.

gate-control theory

Helps to explain the perception of pain.

body movement senses

Proprioception and kinesthesia keep us informed about the movement of our own body.

proprioception

The sensory system that allows perception of body position and movement.

vestibular sense

The sense that conveys a person's sense of balance.

motion sickness cause

A conflict between information received by the eyes and information received by the body.