AP Psych Unit 4 Terms Social Psych & Personality (copy)

Social Psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Attribution Theory

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing other's’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events Attitudes can be positive, negative, or neutral and play a crucial role in shaping our responses and behaviors.

Peripheral Route Persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as speaker’s attractiveness

Central Route Persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

Foot-In-The-Door Phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

Role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

Norms

understood rules for accepted and expected behavior, they prescribe “proper” behavior

Conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Normative Social Influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Informational Social Influence

influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept other's opinions about reality

Social Facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

Social Loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Group Polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members, involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

Stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Just-World Phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Ingroup

“us”—people with whom we share a common identity

Outgroup

“them”—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

Ingroup Bias

the tendency to favor our own group

Scapegoat Theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Other-Race Effect

the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races, aka cross-race effect and own-race bias

Mere Exposure Effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

Passionate Love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship

Companionate Love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom ourr lives are intertwined

Self-Disclosure

the act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Bystander Effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Social Exchange Theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Reciprocity Norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

Social-Responsibility Norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

Mirror-Image Perceptions

mutual views often help by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Superordinate Goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

Personality

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Psychodynamic Theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences

Psychoanalysis

Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories

Free Association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

Id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, it operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

Ego

the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality, it operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

Superego

the part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

Psychosexual Stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

Defense Mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Collective Unconscious

Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history

Projective Test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Rorschach Inkblot Test

the most widely used projective test; a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

Humanistic Theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

Self-Actualization

one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential

Self-Transcendence

the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

Unconditional Positive Regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help people develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

Self-Concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

Social-Cognitive Perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context

Behavioral Approach

focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

Reciprocal Determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

Self

assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

Spotlight Effect

overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

Self-Esteem

one’s feelings of high or low self-worth

Self-Efficacy

one’s sense of competence and effectiveness

Self-Serving Bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

Individualism

giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

Collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly

Trait

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

Personality Inventory

a questionnaire (true or false, agree-disagree) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests, originally developed to identify emotional disorders

Empirically Derived Test

a test (such as MMPI) created by selecting from a pool of items that discriminate between groups

Motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

Physiolgical Need

a basic bodily requirement

Drive-Reduction Theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

Homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

Incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

Affiliation Need

the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group

Achievement Motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard