Ap Psychology Vocabulary

Adding More As I Go Through the Units. Right Now, Unit 0-2

Perspectives

Perspectives

psychologists use a variety of approaches or perspectives to explain why people think and act the way they do

Evolutionary Perspective

Mental processes exist because they serve an evolutionary purpose, they aid in survival & reproduction

Biological Perspective/ Biopsychology

The influence of genetics and brain chemistry (physical & biological processes)

Behavioral Perspective

focuses on observable behavior. People and animals are controlled by their environment. (Learned behaviors)

Cognitive Perspective

focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world (internal process of the mind), and how it influences behavior

Sociocultural Perspective

Focuses on society and culture in terms of our behavior and shaping cognition

Psychodynamic Perspective

emphasizes the importance of unconscious influences, early life experiences, and interpersonal relationships in explaining the underlying dynamics of behavior or in treating people with psychological problems

Humanistic Perspective

the human capacity for choice and growth, motivation for people to fulfill their potential (self-actualization)

Biopsychosocial Approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis (forms links between multiple different perspectives)

Psychology

the scientific study of the mind and behavior

Confirmation Bias

the tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct. To overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgements

Empirical Evidence

information acquired by observation or experimentation

Scientific Method

a systematic approach to research where a problem is identified, relevant data is gathered, a hypothesis is formulated from this data, and the hypothesis is empirically tested

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Falsifiable

capable of being disproved by experimental results

Peer Review

a process by which something proposed (as for research or publication) is evaluated by a group of experts in the appropriate field

Replication

the action of repeating a study, using the same methods to see if the original results can be consistently reproduced

Reliability

the consistency of a research study or measuring test

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what is supposed to

The American Psychological Association (APA)

a professional organization representing psychologist in the United States

Quantitative Data

Information about quantities; that is, information that can be measured and written down with numbers

Qualitative Data

descriptive information, which often comes from interviews, focus groups, or artistic depictions such as photographs

Likert Scales

a psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires, and is the most widely used scale in survey research

Structured Interviews

a quantitative research method commonly employed in survey research. The aim of this approach is to ensure that each interview is presented with exactly the same questions in the same order.

Survey Technique

a research technique that involves the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions

Wording Effect

the effect that question phrasing and order have on survey data

Social Desirability Bias

a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself

Naturalistic Observation

observing subjects in their natural environment, without manipulation or control by the researcher

Case Study

an in-depth study of a single person, group, event, or community

Correlational Research

a type of non-experimental research method, which studies the relationship between two variables with the help of statistical analysis

Third Variable Problem

a form of confounding in which a third variable leads to a mistaken causal relationship between two others

Scatterplot

a graphical representation of the values of two variables for a set of data

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Positive Correlation

a relationship between two variables in which both variables move in the same direction. For example, as one variable increases, the other also increases, indicating a direct relationship

Negative Correlation

a relationship between two variables in which the variables move in opposite directions. For examples, as one variable increases the other decreases, indicating an inverse relationship

Experimental Method

a method of research where the researcher manipulates one variable and controls/randomizes the rest of the variables

Independent Variable

the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher

Dependent Variable

the variable that is tested and measured in an experiment

Confounding Variable

a variable that influences both the dependent variable and independent variable causing a spurious association

Operational Definitions

Specifically defining a variable in terms of how it is measured or manipulated in a study

Experimental Group

the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested

Control Group

the group in an experiment that does not receive the test variable

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Experimenter Bias

a process where the scientists performing the research influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome

Single-Blind Study

a study in which the participants do not know whether they are in the control group of the experimental group but the researchers do

Double-Blind Study

a study in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment

Placebo Condition

a condition in which treatment is not administered but the subject believes that it is administered

Sample

a subset of individuals from a larger population, used to conduct research

Representative Sample

a sample that accurately reflect the characteristics of the population as a whole

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Sample Bias

a bias that occurs when a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others

Generalizability

the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized or extended to others

Statistics

a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of masses of numerical data

Descriptive Statistics

statistics that allow one to make predictions and inferences about a population and inferences about a population based on a sample of data

Measure of Central Tendency

a statistical measure that identifies a single value as representative of an entire distribution

Mean

the average of a set of numerical values

Median

the middle value in a list of numbers

Mode

the value that appears most often in a set of data

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset

Normal Curve

a bell-shaped curve that represents a distribution of values, frequencies, or probabilities so that most measurements are concentrated around the middle

Regression to the Mean

the phenomenon that if a variable is extreme on its first measurement, it will tend to be closer to the average on its second measurement

Positive Skew

this happens when more numbers in a list are on the lower side, but a few really high numbers stretch the average higher

Negative Skew

this is when more numbers in a list are on the higher side, but a few really low numbers pull the average down

Standard Deviation

a measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values

Percentile Rank

the percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than it

Bimodal Distribution

a distribution that shows two different peaks or modes in the frequency of occurrences

Statistical Significance

this tells us if the results of an experiment are probably true or just happened by chance. it checks if what we found in our experiment would happen often, or is rare when we think nothing special is going on

Effect Sizes

this measures how big the impact of something is in an experiment. For example, it tells us how much a medicine really helps compared to not using the medicine at all

Meta Analysis

a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies

Institutional Review Boards (IRB)

a committee that reviews and approves research involving human subjedcts, ensuring that ethical standards are met

Informed Consent

permission granted with the knowledge of the possible consequences, typically that which is given by a patient to a doctor for treatment with full knowledge of the risks and benefits

Confidentiality

the requirement that private or sensitive information is not disclosed without the consent of the person who provided it

Deception

the act of misleading or wrongly informing someone about the true nature of a situation

Confederates

individual's who appear to be participants in a study but are actually part of the research team

Debriefing

providing participants in a study with a full explanation of the study after its completion, including the purpose and any deceptions used

Evolutionary Perspective

looks at how human behaviors helped our ancestors survive and reproduce

Natural Selection

process where traits that enhance survival and reproduction are passed on more frequently

Nature

the influence of genetic factors on traits and behaviors

Nurture

the influence of environmental factors on traits and behaviors

Twin Studies

research comparing the similarities between identical and fraternal twins to understand the influence of genetics versus environment

Adoption Studies

studies that compare biologically related people, including those raised apart, to understand genetic influences

Family Studies

research looking at behavioral traits in families to determine how much is genetic versus environmental

Heredity

the passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes

Eugenics

a controversial and unethical movement aimed at improving the genetic composition of humans through selective breeding

Cerebral Cortex

the outer layer of the brain, involved in complex mental processes such as thinking

Frontal Lobes

involved in decision-making, problem-solving, and controlling behavior

Prefrontal Cortex

part of the frontal lobes involved in planning complex behaviors and expressing personality

Executive Functioning

higher order processes including planning, organizing, and regulating behavior

Motor Cortex

controls voluntary movements

Parietal Lobes

processes sensory information like touch and spatial awareness

Somatosensory Cortex

area of the brain that processes sensory input from various body parts

Occipital Lobes

responsible for vision

Temporal Lobes

involved in hearing, memory, and understanding language

Corpus Callosum

thick band of nerve fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres

Brainstem

supports basic life functions, including heart rate, breathing, and sleeping

Medulla

part of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions like heartbeat and breathing

Reticular Activating System

Regulates wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions

Cerebellum

coordinates voluntary movements like posture, balance, and coordination