ANTHRO EXAM 2

Ethnicity

A cultural construct based on shared beliefs, values, customs, and identity defined by in-group similarity and out-group differences.

Ethnic group

A group sharing culture, language, religion, or history.

Ethnicity as a cultural construct

Ethnicity is socially created and self-identified, not biological.

Ethnicity is active

People actively express ethnicity through language, behavior, dress, and code-switching.

Ethnogenesis

Formation of new ethnic identities in changing conditions.

Racial classification in Brazil

Race is based on a continuum of skin color rather than fixed categories.

Colonialism and race

Colonial powers created and reinforced racial categories to control populations.

Whiteness (historical construction)

The definition of 'white' has changed over time and expanded.

Rwanda ethnicity

Hutu and Tutsi were originally class distinctions turned into ethnic groups by colonialism.

• Tutsi- pastoralists 

• Hutu- agriculturalists

Nation

A group with shared identity, culture, and history.

Nation-state

A state where political boundaries match cultural identity.

Nationalism

Belief that a nation should have its own state.

Sex

Biological traits such as genes, hormones, and anatomy; an etic spectrum.

Gender

Cultural interpretation of sex; an emic spectrum.

Sexual dimorphism

Physical differences between males and females.

Gender stereotypes

Oversimplified ideas about male and female behavior.

Gender roles

Cultural expectations for behavior based on gender.

Gender stratification

Unequal distribution of power/resources based on gender.

Public/domestic dichotomy

Men linked to public sphere, women to domestic sphere.

Gender variance

Identities beyond male/female binary.

Hijras and Nadleehe

Examples of third gender categories.

Intersex

Biological traits of both sexes.

Transgender

Gender identity differs from assigned sex.

Sexuality as cultural construct

Sexual behavior meanings vary by culture.

Machismo

Cultural value emphasizing male dominance.

Kinship

System of social relationships based on family and descent.

Descent

Rules for tracing ancestry.

Consanguineal kin

Relatives by blood.

Affinal kin

Relatives by marriage.

Incest prohibition

Cultural rule against sexual relations with close relatives.

Matrilineage

Descent through mother’s line.

Patrilineage

Descent through father’s line.

Lineage

Group tracing descent from a known ancestor.

Clan

Larger descent group with symbolic ancestor.

Unilineal descent

Descent through one parent only.

Bilateral descent

Descent through both parents.

Kindred

Ego-centered network of relatives.

Family

Social unit with shared obligations.

Nuclear family

Parents and dependent children. (could be your parents and siblings, OR yourself, wife and your children)

Natal family

Family you are born into. (your parents and siblings)

Household

People who share living space and resources.

Extended family

Multiple generations living together.

Marriage

Socially recognized union with rights and obligations.

Monogamy

One spouse at a time.

Polygamy

Multiple spouses.

Polygyny

One man with multiple wives.

Polyandry

One woman with multiple husbands.

Bride service

Groom works for bride’s family.

Bridewealth

Groom’s family gives goods to bride’s family.

Dowry

Bride’s family gives goods to couple.

Adaptive strategy

How a culture makes a living.

Foraging

Hunting and gathering lifestyle.

Kung work levels

About 15 hours of work per week.

Optimal foraging theory

Maximize energy gained vs effort.

Horticulture

Small-scale farming using human labor.

Pastoralism

Herding animals.

Monoculture

Growing one crop.

Polyculture

Growing multiple crops.

Domestication

Human control over plant/animal reproduction.

Reciprocity

Exchange between individuals.

Generalized reciprocity

Giving without expecting return.

Balanced reciprocity

Equal exchange expected.

Negative reciprocity

Trying to get more than you give.

Kula ring

Ceremonial exchange system.

Redistribution

Goods collected and redistributed by authority.

Leveling mechanisms

Practices that reduce wealth inequality.

Ultimatum game

People prefer fairness over profit.

Colonialism and its impact on race

Colonial rule created and reinforced racial hierarchies to justify control and inequality.

Sex vs Gender

Sex is biological while gender is cultural and socially constructed.

Gender categories beyond male/female

Many cultures recognize more than two gender categories.

Cultural construction of gender

Gender roles and expectations are created and shaped by culture.

Kinship vs Descent

Kinship is the broader system of relationships, while descent refers specifically to tracing ancestry.

Cross cousins vs Parallel cousins

Cross cousins are children of opposite-sex siblings; parallel cousins are children of same-sex siblings.

Lineages as corporate groups

Lineages act as unified groups that control property and resources.

Clan vs Lineage

Lineage traces descent from a known ancestor; clan traces from a symbolic or unknown ancestor.

Unilineal vs Bilateral kinship

Unilineal traces through one parent; bilateral traces through both parents.

Marital rights

Rights established by marriage such as sexual access, property, and legitimacy of children.

Neolocality

Living in a new residence separate from both families.

Matrilocality

Living near or with the wife’s family.

Patrilocality

Living near or with the husband’s family.

Subsistence agriculture (horticulture)

Small-scale farming using human labor and local resources.

Ethnoscience

Study of how people classify and understand the natural world.

Domestication and Agriculture

Human control of plant/animal reproduction and cultivation.

Slash and burn (swidden) and extensive land use

Farming method involving clearing land and using it temporarily.

Intensive agriculture

Farming with high labor and technology inputs to increase yield.

Industrial agriculture

Large-scale, mechanized farming using external energy inputs.