final test

What are the levels of organization in the human body?

Chemical level, Cellular level, Tissue level, Organ level, System level, Organism level.

What are the requirements of life?

Metabolism, Responsiveness, Movement, Growth, Differentiation, Reproduction.

Define homeostasis.

Physiological process by which the internal systems of the body are maintained at equilibrium.

What are the three components of a feedback loop system?

Receptor, Control Center, Effector.

What is the function of a receptor in the homeostatic control system?

Monitors changes in controlled condition and sends input to the control center.

What does the control center do?

Sets what a particular value should be, evaluates input, and generates output commands.

What is the role of an effector in the homeostatic system?

Receives output and produces a response.

What is negative feedback?

Reverses the altered controlled condition to return the body to homeostasis.

What is positive feedback?

Reinforces the altered controlled condition.

What is a molecule?

Two or more atoms changing electrons or chemically bonding.

Define a compound.

Substance that contains atoms of two or more different elements.

What is a mixture?

Combination of elements or compounds blended together but not bound by chemical bonds.

What are the three types of mixtures?

Solution, Colloid, Suspension.

Describe a solution.

When mixed together, solutes remain evenly dispersed among the solvent (transparent).

What is a colloid?

Mixture where solutes are large enough to scatter light (opaque). Example: Milk.

What is a suspension?

Material that may mix with liquid for some time but will eventually settle out (e.g., blood).

What are the directional terms used in anatomy?

Superior, Inferior, Anterior, Posterior, Medial, Lateral, Proximal, Distal.

What are the two main body cavities?

Ventral and Dorsal.

What structures are found in the ventral body cavity?

Thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

What structures are in the dorsal body cavity?

Cranial and vertebral cavities.

What is an ionic bond?

Bond that holds positively and negatively charged ions together.

Explain a covalent bond.

Bond formed when two or more atoms share electrons.

What is a hydrogen bond?

Polar covalent bond that forms between hydrogen atoms and other atoms.

What are synthesis reactions?

Reactions where two or more reactants combine to form a more complex substance.

What is a decomposition reaction?

Reaction in which a more complex substance is broken down into smaller substances.

Define exchange reactions.

Reactions that involve both synthesis and decomposition.

What are the four types of organic molecules?

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids.

What are characteristics of lipids?

Hydrophobic, store energy, serve as structural components.

Name the four families of lipids.

Fatty acids, Triglycerides, Phospholipids, Steroids.

What are the functions of proteins?

Structure of body cells, act as enzymes, muscular contraction, antibodies.

What is the primary structure of a protein?

Unique sequence of amino acids linked by covalent peptide bonds.

Describe the secondary structure of a protein.

Repeated twisting and folding of neighboring amino acids in polypeptide chain.

Explain the tertiary structure of a protein.

3D shape of a polypeptide chain that determines its function.

What is quaternary structure in proteins?

Arrangement of two or more polypeptide chains relative to one another.

Name the types of carbohydrates.

Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides.

What are DNA and RNA composed of?

Repetitive units called nucleotides.

What are the components of a nucleotide?

Pentose sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base.

Describe the function of mitochondria.

Powerhouse of the cell, generates 90% of energy (ATP) through aerobic respiration.

What is the function of ribosomes?

Synthesize proteins.

What does the rough endoplasmic reticulum do?

Synthesizes proteins, glycoproteins, and phospholipids.

What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

Synthesizes fats, inactivates and detoxifies drugs and alcohol.

What is the role of the Golgi complex?

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.

What do lysosomes do?

Break down foreign particles and damaged organelles.

What is the function of peroxisomes?

Produce and decompose hydrogen peroxide.

Describe the cytoskeleton.

Provides mechanical support, involved in muscle contraction and cell division.

What is the nucleus's role?

Store and protect the cell's DNA.

Define passive transport.

Substance moves down the concentration gradient (high to low).

What is active transport?

Substance moves against the concentration gradient (low to high).

What is endocytosis?

Process of materials moving into a cell via a vesicle formed from the plasma membrane.

Define phagocytosis.

Ingestion of harmful foreign particles by cells.

What is pinocytosis?

Ingestion of droplets of extracellular fluid into a cell.

Describe exocytosis.

Process of releasing materials out of a cell.

What is an isotonic solution?

Causes no change in cell shape.

What is a hypertonic solution?

Solution with more solutes than the solution in the cell.

Define a hypotonic solution.

Solution with less solute than the solution in the cell.

What are the stages of mitosis?

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.

What is transcription?

Process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.

What is translation?

Synthesis of proteins from mRNA.

Where does protein synthesis occur?

Ribosomes.

What are the four types of tissues?

Epithelium, Connective Tissue, Cartilage, Muscle.

Where can you find elastic cartilage?

Ears and parts of the larynx.

What are the types of serous membranes?

Peritoneum, Pleura, Pericardium.

What are the abdominopelvic regions and their organs?

Right hypochondriac (liver), Right lumbar (ascending colon), Right inguinal (appendix), Epigastric (stomach), Umbilical (jejunum), Hypogastric (bladder), Left hypochondriac (spleen), Left lumbar (descending colon), Left inguinal (small intestine).

What are the layers of the epidermis?

Stratum corneum, Stratum lucidum, Stratum granulosum, Stratum spinosum, Stratum Basale.

What are the types of cells found in the epidermis?

Keratinocytes, Melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells.

What are the roles of keratinocytes?

Produce keratin, a protective protein, making up 90% of epidermal cells.

What do Langerhans cells do?

Involved in immune responses.

What are the functions of melanocytes?

Produce the pigment melanin.

What is the role of dermal papillae?

Enhance the grip of the skin and increase the surface area for nutrient exchange.

What is the reticular region of the dermis?

Consists of dense irregular connective tissue; deeper part of the dermis.

How is epithelium classified?

By the number of cell layers (simple or stratified) and shape of cells (squamous, cuboidal, columnar).

What are the types of cell junctions?

Tight junctions, Adhering junctions, Desmosomes, Hemidesmosomes, Gap junctions.

What are the functions of tight junctions?

Seal passageways between adjacent cells to prevent leakage.

What is the function of desmosomes?

Act as spot welds to hold adjacent cells together.

What is a hemidesmosome?

Half-weld that attaches cells to the basement membrane.

What is a gap junction?

Connects neighboring cells through fluid-filled tunnels.

What is the purpose of the nail matrix?

Region where nail growth occurs.

What gland secretes oil in hair follicles?

Sebaceous glands.

How are burns classified?

1st Degree (epidermis), 2nd Degree (epidermis and dermis), 3rd Degree (epidermis, dermis, hypodermis).

What types of cells make up compact bone?

Osteoblasts, Osteoclasts, Osteocytes.

What is the basic unit of compact bone?

Osteon.

What does the periosteum do?

Protects and aids in bone growth and repair.

What is trabeculae in spongy bone?

Thin columns that provide structural support and contain bone marrow.

What is intramembranous ossification?

Process that gives rise to flat bones.

What is endochondral ossification?

Process that gives rise to long bones from a cartilage template.

Name the regions of a long bone.

Diaphysis, Epiphysis, Metaphysis, Epiphyseal plate/line, Articular cartilage, Periosteum, Medullary cavity, Endosteum.

What are the classifications of bones based on shape?

Long bones, Short bones, Flat bones, Irregular bones.

Provide examples of long, short, flat, and irregular bones.

Long bones (femur), Short bones (carpals), Flat bones (cranial bones), Irregular bones (vertebrae).

What are interstitial growth and appositional growth?

Interstitial Growth: Growth in Length; Appositional Growth: Growth in Thickness.

What is the order of bone cell types during growth?

Osteogenic cells, Osteoblasts, Osteocytes, Osteoclasts.

What are the parts of the skull?

Frontal bone, Parietal bones, Temporal bones, Occipital bone, Sphenoid bone, Ethmoid bone.

What are the four curves of the adult vertebral column?

Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral.

How can you identify thoracic vertebrae?

Presence of costal facets.

What bones make up the upper arm and lower forearm?

Upper arm: Humerus; Lower forearm: Radius and Ulna.

What bones comprise the upper leg and lower leg?

Upper leg: Femur; Lower leg: Tibia and Fibula.

What does the distal end of the femur articulate with?

Tibia and Patella.

Which two carpal bones articulate with the radius?

Scaphoid and Lunate.

What bones make up the elbow?

radius ulna humerus.

What bones articulate to make the ankle joint?

Medial malleolus of tibia, Lateral malleolus of fibula, Talus.

What articulates with the atlas?

Occipital condyles of the skull.