Final Study Guide

1. Levels of organization

Chemical level®Cellular Level® Tissue Level® Organ Level®System level®Organism level

2. Requirements of life

Metabolism, Responsiveness, Movement, Growth, Differentiation, & Reproduction

3. Know homeostasis definition and negative vs. positive feedback systems.  What are the 3 components to the system?

Physiological process by which the internal systems of the body are maintained at equilibrium

Homeostasis is controlled by a feedback loop system

1.Receptor – structure that monitors changes in controlled condition and sends input to control center (brain)

2.Control Center – sets what a particular value should be, evaluates input, and generates output commands

3.Effector – structure that receives output and produces a response

Negative feedback (more common) – reverses the altered controlled condition and returns the body back to homeostasis

Positive feedback – reinforces the altered controlled condition

4. What’s the difference between molecules, compounds and mixtures? What are the three types of mixtures?

Molecule- 2 or more atoms changing electrons or chemically bonding

Compound-substance that contains atoms of 2 or more different elements

Mixture – combination of elements or compounds that are physically blended together but not bound by chemical bonds

1.     Solution – when mixed together, solutes in a solution remain evenly dispersed among solvent (transparent)

2.     colloid– differs from solution due to size of particles. Solutes large enough to scatter light  (opaque)

◦       Milk – large milk proteins make it a colloid

3.     Suspension – suspended material may mix with liquid for some time, but eventually will settle out (blood)

5. Know directional terminology including different types of planes.

6. Describe the different types of body cavities (ventral and dorsal).  What are found in each?

Ventral- thoracic and abdominopelvic

Dorsal—crania and vertebral

7. What are the different types of chemical bonds?

Ionic bond- bond that holds positively and negatively charge ions (cation- donates e- ; anion accepts e-)

Covalent bond when 2 or more atoms (share) electrons rather than gain or loose them

Hydrogen bond – polar covalent bonds that form between H atoms and other atoms

8. What are the different types of chemical reactions? Know examples of each.

Synthesis reactions- 2 or more reactants combine to form a more complex substance (anabolism) requires removal of water; dehydration synthesis

Decomposition reaction – (hydrolysis)is a reaction in which a more complex substance is broken down into 2 or more smaller substances

Ex; molecule of fat breaking down into glycerol and fatty acids requires addition of water (hydrolysis) to beak bonds of triglecyride

Triglyceride + water break down to 3 fatty acids + glycerol

Exchange reactions- consist of both synthesis and decomposition reactions

AB + CD -> AD + BC

Bonds between AB + CD break (decomposition) NEW bonds form (synthesis) between A and D and B and C

Example: buffer system in digestion

HCL + NaHCO3 ->   NaCl + H2CO3

9. What are the four different types of organic molecules?

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids

10. What are the characteristics of lipids? What are the 4 classes/families of lipids?

Hydrophobic, store energy, and serve as structural components.

Fatty acids, Triglycerides, Phospholipids, & Steroids

11. What are the functions of proteins? What is their structure and shapes? What are they composed of?

Function= structure of body cells, act as enzymes, muscular contraction, antibodies

Components= amino acids

1.     Primary structure: unique sequence of amino acids that are linked by covalent peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain

2.     Secondary structure- repeated twisting and folding of neighboring amino acids in polypeptide chain

3.     Tertiary structure- 3D shaped of polypeptide chain. Each protein has uniquely tertiary structure that determines how it will function

4.     quartenery Arrangement of the individual polypeptide chains relative to one another (arrangement of 2 or more polypeptide chains)

12. What are the different types of carbohydrates?

Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, & Polysaccharides

13. Explain what DNA and RNA are and the components of each.  What makes up a nucleotide?

DNA composed of repeating nucleotide units AT CG and pentose sugar – deoxyribose

RNA -AU CG – pentose ribose

Nucleotide- Pentose Sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base(cnoh).

14. Know the structural and functional characteristics of mitochondria, ribosomes, rER, sER, golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, the cytoskeleton and the nucleus.

·       Mitochondria function- powerhouse of the cell generates 90% of energy (ATP)) through aerobic respiration

·       Ribosomes- function- synthesize a protein

·       rER: Function- synthesize proteins , glycoproteins and phospholipids

·       sER synthesizes fats,  inactivated & dexotifies drugs, alcohol

·       golgi complex: modify, sorts, and packages proteins (1^st step in in protein transport)

·       lysosomes: break down foreign particles, break down damaged organelles and recycle its compones, break down macromolecules for digestion

·       peroxisomes: produce and decompose hydrogen peroxide ( enzymes oxidize (break down) toxic substances (alcohol)

·       cytoskeleton

◦       Involved in muscle contraction, cell division, and cell locomotion

◦       Provide mechanical support that is responsible for cell strength and shape (anchor cytoskeleton to integral proteins)

◦       Provide support for microvilli (used to increase SA for absorption)

·       Nucleus- store and protect the cells DNA

15. Describe the processes of passive transport, active transport, endocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis), and exocytosis.

passive processes- substance moves down concentration gradient (H-> L)

Active processes- substance moves against concentration gradient (L -> H)

Endocytosis; materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed from the plasma membrane

phagocytosis- cells that protect body by ingesting harmful foreign particles (bacteria)

pinocytosis (endocytosis) - droplets of extracellular fluid are taken up into a cell… cell drinking

Exocytosis ; releases materials out of a cell

16. Define and explain each of the following terms: hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic.

Isotonic solution; causes no change in cell,

Hypertonic solution; solution has more solutes (less water than cells)

Hypotonic solution; solution has less solute ( more water than cells)

17. Know the different stages of mitosis.

Mitosis consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, processes that ensure equal distribution of chromosomes to daughter cells.

18. What is transcription and translation?  What does each produce?  Where does each take place?

Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template, occurring in the nucleus, while translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from mRNA, taking place in the cytoplasm.

19. Where are proteins synthesized?

ribosomes

20. Four types of tissues: epithelium, connective tissue, cartilage, muscle.  What are the different types of each.  Where can you find them?  For example where can you

find elastic cartilage or dense regular fibrous connective tissue?

Chapter 4

21. Know the different types of serous membranes

a.      Peritoneum – lines abdominal cavity and organs

b.     Pleura – serous membrane of pleural cavity

c.      Pericardium – serous membrane of pericardial cavity

22. Abdominopelvic regions and quadrants.  What organs can you find in each region?

Right hypochondriac region

Gall bladder, liver, R kidney

Right lumbar region

Cecum, ascending colon, liver, R. kidney

Right inguinal

Appendix, cecum, small intestine

Epigastric region

Liver, stomach, pancreas, duodenum

Umbilical region

Jejunum, ileum, duodenum, colon, kidneys

Hypogastric region

Urinary bladder, small intestine, reproductive organs

Left hypochondriac region

Spleen, colon, liver, L kidney, small intestine

Left lumbar region

Descending colon, L. kidney, small intestine

Left inguinal region

Small intestine, descending colon

23. Structure of atoms, subatomic particles, atomic mass, atomic number

Atoms are composed of protons and neutrons inside nucleus, and

            electrons surrounding nucleus

}  Protons, Located in nucleus. Positively charged. Defines what element it is

Neutrons Located in nucleus. Uncharged

Electrons-Negatively charged that move about in a large space surrounding nucleus

}  Atomic number– number of protons in nucleus

}  Mass number_– sum of its protons and neutrons

24. Know the different layers of the epidermis and be able to describe each layer.  Certain activities occur at each level. For example, what happens at the stratum basale layer?

Superficial        

1.  Stratum corneum

2.  stratum lucidum

3.stratum granulosum

4. stratum spinosum

5. stratum Basale

Deep

25. What are the different types of cells that make up the epidermis.  HINT: There are 4 main types of cells.  What are their functions?  Which type make up 90% of cells?

1.     Keratinocytes - produce  protein keratin - a tough fibrous protein that provides protection .90% of cells of epidermal cells

2.     Melanocytes - produce the pigment melanin

3.     Langerhans cells - are involved in the immune responses

4.     Merkel cells - function in the sensation of touch

26. Different regions of the dermis.  What are they?

Thin superficial papillary region lies just below the epidermis and consists of areolar connecting tissue. Upper 1/5 of dermis

1.     Reticular region consists of dense fibrous irregular connective tissue. Deeper part of the dermis

27. How is epithelium classified?  Two ways.

Epithelium is classified by the number of cell layers (simple or stratified) and the shape of the cells (squamous, cuboidal, or columnar).

28. Types of cell junctions.  Name them and what is their function?

1.      Tight junctions- consist of weblike strands of transmembrane proteins

•       fuse together the outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes to seal off passageways between adjacent cells

•       Keep materials from leaking out of organs (stomach, bladder, and intestines)

2.     Adhering junctions- contain plaque: dense layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane that attaches to membrane proteins and to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton (which offers stability)

•       Prevents epithelial cells from separating during contractile activities (e.g., food moving through intestines)

3.     Desmosomes- act as “spot welds”.  Use cadherin glycoprotein (plus intermediate filaments) to hook into the cytoplasm (ajacent)

•       Common among cells in epidermis and among cardiac muscle cells

4.     Hemidesmosomes-  are half-welds that join cells to the (basement membrane)

5.     Gap junctions- have membrane proteins called connexins that form fluid-filled tunnels that connect cells

29. Know the different parts of the nail.  Where can they be found on the nail and what are their functions?

30. What gland secretes oil in hair follicles?

SEBACEOUS

31. Know the different types of burns.  How are they described?

a.      1^ST DEGREE Damaged the epidermis

b.     2^ND DEGREE Damaged epidermis and dermis

c.      3^RD DEGREE Damaged EpIDERMIS          DERMIS , HYPODERMIS

32. What are the different types of cells that make up compact bone?  What is the function of each of these cell types?  What is the basic unit of compact bone and what structures can you find within compact bone?  For example, which bone cell builds the matrix and which cell breaks bone down?  What is the periosteum?  Remember the lab portion when you study this part.

Compact bone is made up of osteoblasts (build the matrix), osteoclasts (break down bone), and osteocytes (maintain bone tissue). The basic unit of compact bone is the osteon, which contains structures like Haversian canals and lamellae. The periosteum is a dense layer of connective tissue that surrounds the bone, providing protection and aiding in bone growth and repair.

33. What is the main structure of spongy bone?  TRABECULLAE How is it similar to compact bone and how is it different?

Compact bone main building block is an osteon (haversian system) &

Spongy bony consists of lamellae that are arranged in irregular pattern of thin columns called trabeculae, not include osteons

34. What is intramembranous ossification?  What is endochondral ossification?

Intramembranous ossification gives rise to flat bones

Endochondral ossification gives rise to long bones. Cartilage template

35. Know the different regions of a long bone.  What are the different types of connective tissue within bone?

1.     Diaphysis-shaft or body of bone. Constructed of a thick collar of compact bone that surrounds cavity

2.     Epiphysis- proximal and distal ends or extremities

3.     Metaphysis- region between diaphysis and epiphysis.

                                      i.     In growing bone, each metaphysis contains epiphyseal growth plate

4.     Epiphyseal plate-a layer of hyaline cartilage that allows diaphysis of bone to grow in

length

5.     Epiphyseal line_-remnant of epiphyseal plate

                                      i.     After puberty, epiphyseal plate is converted to bone

6.     Articular cartilage covers epiphysis

                                      i.     Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering part of epiphysis

·       where bone forms a joint with another bone

7.     Periosteum- CT tissue lining outside of compound bone

}  Composed of 2 layers

1.     Outer fibrous layer--

–  Composed of dense irregular fibrous connective tissue

–  Contains fibroblasts

2.     inner cambium or osteogenic layer that consists of osteogenic

cells which promote bone growth in width (thickness)

–  Contains progenitor cells that develop into osteoblasts

Periosteum is attached to sharpey’s fibers to connect to compact bone

8.     Medullary Cavity (hollow space within diaphysis)

                                               i.     Contains fatty yellow bone marrow and blood vessels in adults

9.     Endosteum (thin membrane lining the medullary cavity)

                                      i.     Contains single layer of bone-forming cells (osteoblasts and osteoclasts)

36. What are the different classifications of bones? HINT: shape.  Examples of each?  Ankle bones?

Long Bones- femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, ulna, radius, metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges

Short bones - carpals and tarsals

Flat bones – cranial bones, ribs, sternum, scapulae, clavicles. (layer of spongy bone)

Irregular bones – vertebrae, facial bones, hip bones, calcaneus (heel)

Sesamoid bones - develop in tendons where there is considerable friction & Tension

Sutural bones- bones in sutures

37. What is it called when bones grow by width?  By length?

Interstitial Growth: Growth in Length

Appositional Growth: Growth in Thickness

38. What is the sequence of bone cell growth? (osteoclasts, osteoblasts, osteogenic cells, and osteocytes)

osteogenic cells, osteocytes, osteoblasts,

osteoclast isn’t part of it they break up bone

39. Know that different structures you can find on each part of the skull.  HINT: Stick to the slides.

·       Frontal – supra-orbital margin, supra- orbital foramen, frontal sinuses

·       Parietal Bones (2) form greater portion of the sides and roof of the cranial cavity

·       Temporal Bones- Temporal squama, zygomatic process

                                      i.     Mandibular fossa and articular tubercle articulate with mandible (condyle) to form temporomandibular joint (TMJ) (jaw joint)

                                     ii.     Mastoid portion, mastoid process, internal auditory meatus, styloid process, petrous portionk

·       Occipital Bone – foramen magnum, occipital condyles (Articulates with depressions of atlas (C1) – allows for dorso-ventral movement of head (up and down), external occipital protuberance (above foramen magnum)

·       Sphenoid bone – (articulates with every bone) body, sella turcica, greater wings, lesser wings, pterygoid processes

·       Ethmoid bone -  cribriform plate, crista galli, perpendicular plate, superior nasal concha, middle nasal concha

40. How many curves are in the adult vertebral column?  Name them.  When do they develop? 4

Cervical and lumbar are convex (bulging out) (secondary curvature) hold you up

Thoracic and sacral curves are concave (cupping in) (primary curvature)

41. How can you determine if a vertebrae is a thoracic vertebrae?

Costal facets

42. Know the different parts on the upper limb (arm) and lower limb (leg)?  What bones comprise the upper arm and lower forearm?  What bones comprise the upper leg (thigh) and lower leg? 

Upper arms = Shoulder-> phalanges     lower limb= hip to toes

Upper arm humerous

Lower forearm- radius and ulna

Upper leg(thigh) femur

Lower leg- tibia fibula

43. What bones in the upper and lower limbs articulate?  For example, does the fibula articulate with the femur?  What bones of the lower arm (forearm) articulate with the carpals?

What does the distal end of the femur articulate with? Tibia and patella

Proximal radioulnar joint - radial notch of ulna and head of radius

1.     Uniaxial pivot joint (flexion and extension)

Distal radioulnar joint – ulnar notch of radius and ulnar head

Proximal end (head) articulates with acetabulum of hip bone

Distal end articulates with tibia and patella

44.   Which 2 carpal bones articulate with the radius?

Scaphoid and lunate

45. Which bone(s) makes up your elbow and your ankle?

Elbow- Olecranon process of ulna and olecranon fossa of humerus form bony elbow projection

Ankle-Medial malleolus of tibia, Lateral malleolus of fibula, Talus

46. Which bone structure articulates with the atlas?

occipital condyles

47. Which bones make up the thoracic cage?

 Ribs, Sternum, thoracic vertebrae

48. Structural (fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial (also see question 1) and functional (synarthrosis, diarthrosis, and amphiarthrosis) classification of joints (see question 2). Definitions.

Fibrous joints- No synovial cavity and bones are held together by dense irregular connective tissue rich in collagen fibers

Cartilaginous joints- No synovial cavity and bones held together by cartilage

Synovial joints-- Bones forming joints have synovial cavity and are united by dense irregular connective tissue

Synarthrosis- Immovable joint

Amphiarthrosis- Slightly movable joint

Diarthrosis - Freely movable joint. All diarthroses are synovial joints

49. The wrist is an example of what type of joint?  Be specific.

condyloid

50. Know the definition of bursae.

Fluid-filled sacs that reduce friction in joints.

51. Types of connective tissue involved in skeletal muscle. (epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium). What does each surround?

Epimysium-outermost layer of dense (surrounds belly of muscle)

Perimysium- (surrounds fascicles)

Endomysium-penetrates interior of each fascicle (surrounds fibers)

Belly -> fascicle _> muscle fibers -> myofibrils-> myofilaments -arranged as sarcomere

52. What are myoblasts?

Myoblast- muscle immature cell fuse together lose ability to mitotically divide

53. Microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle fibers. This includes sarcolemma, T tubules, sarcoplasm, myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, terminal cisterns, triad, myofilaments, sarcomeres, actin, myosin, fascicles.  Know the definitions provided on the slides. Ch11

}  Sarcolemma- plasma membrane surrounds muscle cell/fiber

T tubules- tiny invaginations down of sarcolemma (wrapping around myofibrils) (action potential that goes through t tubules to release calcium )

}  Sarcoplasm- cytoplasm of muscle fiber. Located within sarcolemma (plasma membrane of muscle cell) contain glycogen and myoglobin

}  Myofibrils- surrounded by sarcoplasmic reticulum

}  Sarcoplasmic reticulum – surrounds myofibrils

}  Terminal cisterns- dilated end sacs of sarcoplasmic reticulum

}  Triad- 1 Transverse tubule and 2 terminal cisterns in SR

54. Know the definition of sarcomeres.  Also, know the anatomy of sarcomeres. (Z line, M line, A band, H band, I band, actin, myosin). Know the definition provided on slides.

Is the basic contractile unit of muscle fiber. Each sarcomere is composed of two main protein filaments actin and myosin-  which are the active structures responsible for muscular contraction.

55. Properties of muscle tissue.  Refer to slides, there are 4.

    1. Electrical excitability-

                                               i.     Muscles ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signals called action potentials (impulses)

                                              ii.     Electrical signals – arise in muscular tissue (heart’s pacemaker)

                                            iii.     Chemical stimuli – neurotransmitters released by neurons, hormones, local changes in pH

55. Contractility

                                               i.     Ability of muscular tissue to contract forcefully when stimulated by action potential

55. Extensibility-

                                               i.     Ability of muscular tissue to stretch without being damaged

55. Elasticity

                                               i.     Ability of muscular tissue to return to its original length and shape after contraction or extension

56. What is the function of tropomyosin and troponin?  Note: these are regulatory proteins.

a.      Tropomyosin – part of thin filament. Held in place by troponin

b.     Troponin – part of thin filament- moves tropomyosin away from myosin binding sites on actin. Activated by calcium

57. In response to action potentials arriving from transverse tubules (T tubules), the sarcoplasmic reticulum releases what ion?\\

CALCIUM

58. Length-tension relationship curve.  Know definition. 

The length-tension relationship curve describes the relationship between the length of a muscle and its ability to generate force. It illustrates how optimal muscle length allows for maximum tension production.

59. What is the site where a somatic motor neuron releases acetylcholine to stimulate a skeletal muscle fiber?

The neuromuscular junction, where the motor neuron communicates with the muscle fiber to initiate contraction.

60. Anatomy of the neuromuscular junction.  This includes: synapse, synaptic cleft, neurotransmitters, synaptic end bulbs, synaptic vesicles, motor end plate, acetylcholine receptors.  Know definitions.

}  Synapse-region where communication occurs between somatic motor neuron and skeletal muscle fiber

}  Synaptic cleft--space that separates neuron and muscle

Neurotransmitters (acetylcholine; ACh) are released into gap by a cell to communicate with opposing cell

The neuromuscular junction is the anatomical structure where a motor neuron connects to a skeletal muscle fiber, facilitating communication through the release of neurotransmitters like acetylcholine. Key components include the synapse, synaptic cleft, synaptic vesicles, motor end plate, and acetylcholine receptors, all crucial for muscle contraction.

61. 3 types of skeletal muscle fibers (SO, FOG, FG). Color, contracts fast or slow, and function of each.

Skeletal muscle fibers are classified into three types: Type I (Slow Oxidative, red color, slow contraction, endurance), Type IIa (Fast Oxidative Glycolytic, pink color, fast contraction, moderate endurance), and Type IIb (Fast Glycolytic, white color, fast contraction, high power but low endurance).

62. 4 parts of twitch contraction. (latent period, contraction period, relaxation period, refractory period).  Just know definitions provided on slides.

Twitch contraction involves four distinct phases: the latent period, where no visible contraction occurs; the contraction period, where muscle tension increases; the relaxation period, where tension decreases; and the refractory period, during which the muscle cannot respond to further stimulation

§  . Latent-calcium ions are released from sarcoplasmic reticulum

§  Contraction period-Ca²⁺ binds to troponin and cross-bridges form

§  Relaxation period-Ca²⁺ actively transported back in SR and tension in fiber decreases

§  Refractory period-lost excitability period

§  Muscle cannot be excited and contract

63. Isotonic vs isometric contractions. Know definition provided on slides.

Isotonic contraction – tension (force of contraction) is constant while muscle length changes. concentric & eccentric

Isometric contractions– muscle contracts but does not change length

64. What are the 3 types of lever systems.  Define each and know examples of each in the human body.  Hint: refer to slides.

1^st class lever systems (either) Head resting on vertebral column

 2^nd class lever systems- (mechanical advantage) – load is in between effort and fulcrum (stepping on tiptoes)

 3^rd class lever systems- (most common) load is farther away and effort is closer to fulcrum (mechanical disadvantage) (TMJ-Jaw )

65. Definitions for the following: prime mover/agonist, antagonist, synergist, fixator, compartment.

1. Prime mover/agonist – leader, contracts to cause an action

2. antagonist– other muscle stretches and yields to the effects of the prime mover (against prime mover)

ex: flexing forearm at elbow: biceps prime mover (contracts)  triceps are antagonist (stretch)

c.      synergist – most movements also involve muscles

d.     Fixators – synergist muscles - Some synergist muscles in a group act as fixators

e.      Compartment- A comparmentis a group of skeletal muscles, their associated blood vessels, and associated nerves

66. Name the 4 neuroglial cells of the central nervous system (CNS).

ASTROCYTES, OLIGODENDROCYTES, MICROGLIAL CELLS, AND EPENDYMAL CELLS

67. Of the neuroglial cells of the CNS, which is the most numerous?

ASTROCYTES

68. Which neuroglial cells form the myelin sheath in the CNS?

OLIGODENDROCYTES

69. Which neuroglial cells form the myelin sheath in the PNS?

SCHWANN CELLS

70.   What is the point of connection between two communicating neurons called?

            synapse

71.   What is the neurolemma?

Surrounds Schwan cells 

When a neuron in the PNS is injured, what part of a Schwann cell aids in regeneration to form a new axon- neurolemma

72. Which channels open and what ions flow in or out of the cell during Depolarizing Phase, Repolarizing Phase, and After-hyperpolarizing Phase?

Depolarizing phase- Na+ channels open and Na+ flows in

Repolarizing phase- K+ channels open K+ flows out

Hyperpolarizing phase- K+ channels stay open

73. Voluntary control of skeletal muscles is provided by the_____nervous system.  Hint: It is a division of the peripheral nervous system.

Somatic NS

74. Know the correct order of events of sound transmission through the ear. 1. sound waves strike the eardrum 2. the ear ossicles vibrate 3. hair cells of the organ of Corti vibrate 4. the perilymph in the cochlea moves 5. sound waves enter the external auditory canal

5,1,2,4,3

75. What are the different parts of the eye?  What does each do?

Iris- regulate amount of light entering pupil

Cornea- covers colored iris and helps focus light onto retina

Sclera- gives shape to eye

Choroid - contains melanocytes that produce melanin which absorbs stray light rays and prevents reflection and scattering of light within eyeball

Ciliary body - alter shape of lens

Retina- detects light and color

76. What cells make up the blood-brain barrier?

Endothelial cells

77. Where does each of the following plexuses supply nerves to? Cervical plexus, brachial plexus, lumbar plexus, sacral plexus

}  Cervical plexus-nerves that supply skin and muscles of head, neck, and upper part of shoulder (formed by roots of C1-C5)

}  Brachial plexus-nerves that supply upper limbs and neck and shoulder muscles

Roots of spinal nerves C5-T1

}  Lumbar plexus-nerves that supply abdominal wall, external genitals, and lower limbs (roots of spinal nerves L1-L4)

}  Sacral plexus-nerves that supply buttocks and lower limbs

}  Coccygeal plexus-nerves that supply skin of coccygeal region

78. What is a tendon reflex?  What is its function?

Tendon reflex - Controls muscle tension by causing muscle relaxation before muscle force becomes so great that tendons might tear.

•       Instead of resulting in a contraction, it results in relaxation of a muscle

•       It is inhibitory reflex

79. What are the 5 secondary brain vesicles and what do each develop into (adult structures)?  For example, diencephalon?  Table at beginning of chapter.

80. What are the 2 functional regions of the midbrain (superior vs. inferior colliculi)?  What is the function of each?

Superior colliculi-coordinate movements of head, eyes, and trunk in response to visual stimuli

Inferior colliculi-coordinates movements of head, eyes and trunk in response to auditory stimuli

81. What is Wernicke’s area and Broca’s speech area?

Broca’s speech area-located in frontal lobe of left hemisphere

a.      involved in speaking and understanding language (producing language)

b.     Region of the brain that contains motor neurons involved in the control of speech

Wernicke’s area-region in left temporal and interprets the meaning of speech by recognizing spoken words

c.      contains motor neurons involved in the comprehension of speech

82. Which cerebral hemisphere controls musical and artistic awareness?  RIGHT. Which cerebral hemisphere controls reasoning and scientific skills? LEFT

83. The visual cortex and visual association area is located in which lobe of the brain? OCCIPITAL

84. Know about preganglionic and postganglionic neurons.  Which one is myelinated or unmyelinated?  What does each connect to?  Where does each come from?  Where do they synapse?

Paraganglion neuron convey nerve impulses from CNS to autonomic ganglia (collection of neuronal cell bodies in PNS). Myelinated. In brain or spinal cord

Postganglionic neurons relay impulses from autonomic ganglia to visceral effectors (ex. Cardiac or smooth muscle). Unmyelinated.Outside CNS

85. What is the function of the Bowman’s glands?

a.      Produce mucus that is carried to surface of epithelium by ducts

b.     Secretion moistens surface of olfactory epithelium

                                               i.     dissolves odorants so that transduction can occur (conversion of odor to electrical impulse)

86. What are the 3 types of papillae that contain taste buds and where are they located on the tongue?

a.      Vallate papillae (back of tongue; about 12 that contain 100–300 taste buds)

b.     Fungiform papillae (scattered over the tongue with about 5 taste buds each)

c.      Foliate papillae (located in lateral trenches of the tongue

87. Where is the image forming in reference to the retina in nearsighted people?  How about far sighted people?

Nearsighted- image is focused infront of retina

Farsighted image is focused behind retina

88. During olfactory transduction, what causes depolarizing generator potential?

                                               i.     Binding of an odorant to an olfactory receptor protein in olfactory cilium stimulates membrane protein called G protein

                                              ii.     Binding of an odorant to an olfactory receptor protein in olfactory cilium stimulates membrane protein called G protein

                                            iii.     cAMP opens a Na⁺ channel and Na ⁺ enters cytosol which causes depolarization

                                             iv.     If depolarization reaches threshold, action potential is generated along axon of olfactory receptor

*The binding of odor molecules to receptors on olfactory sensory neurons