U3 AOS2 psychology

Behaviourist approaches to learning emphasise

the study of observable behaviour alone to understand and explain learning, without regard to underlying mental processes and states such as thoughts and feelings.

Behavourists believe that learning basically occurs through

interaction with the environment, which is the sources of rewards and punishments. We tend to repeat behaviours that we find rewarding and not repeat behaviours we associate with punishment. In this sense, our actions are shaped and controlled by the environment because this is the sources of rewards and punishments.

What is classical conditioning?

Definition: Learning that occurs through the repeated (usually) association of two (or more) different stimuli’.

• Learning is only said to have had occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a reflexive or involuntary response that it did not previously produce.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus which prior to the conditioning does not evoke a response (e.g. bell, horn, brand, person, people).

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Any stimulus which produces a (naturally occurring) involuntary response (e.g. nice food, good coffee, someone or something you find attractive).

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Occurs automatically when the UCS is presented. It’s reflexive/involuntary (e.g. a physiological change such as salivating when you smell the coffee or food, or sexual arousal) due to the UCS.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

which originally was the Neutral stimulus (NS) but through repeated (usually) pairings/association with the UCS it now also produces a response.

Conditioned response (CR)

Is a behaviour which is similar but not necessarily the same as the UCR, which is due to (caused/triggered by) the CS after conditioning (Eg. Dog now salivates to sound of bell).

Defining features of Classical Conditioning

Nature of response

• Reflexive (involuntary)

Timing of (reinforcing) stimulus

• Precedes the response

• Eg. The bell rings before the dog salivates.

Timing of response

• After the stimulus

Role of learner

• Passive

Before conditioning

• A certain Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) naturally evokes an automatically

occurring Unconditioned Response (UCR).

• The Neutral Stimulus (NS) doesn't lead to any type of response,

During ‘Acquisition’ phase

• The Neutral Stimulus is followed by Unconditioned Stimulus. The repeated pairings causes the organism to learns associate these two (or more) events whilst it continues to produce an Unconditioned Response due to the UCS.

• Usually, repeated pairings of the UCS and NS are required for conditioning to take effect.

• Importantly, the UCS should immediately follow the NS to maximise the speed with which the CR can be acquired.

• Often more effective when the NS remains present until the UCS is presented.

After conditioning

• The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) when presented alone will elicit the Conditioned Response (CR).

Operant conditioning key idea

The likelihood of a behaviour being repeated is determined by the consequences of that behaviour.

What is operant conditioning?

Definition:

Learning process in which the consequences that follow a behaviour determine the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated.

Reinforcement always

increases the likelihood of behaviour being repeated whereas punishment (including response cost) always weakens a behaviour.

Three-phase model of Operant Conditioning

Antecedent (A)

Behaviour (B)

Consequence (C)

Effect on future behaviour

Antecedent (A)

The stimulus/event or circumstance that triggers/initiates the behaviour.

Behaviour (B)

Behaviour/response that acts (operates) on the environment.

Consequence (C)

The environmental stimulus that follows the operant response.

Effect on future behaviour

Reinforcement increases/punishment decreases likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.

Punishment and Reinforcement

Key difference:

• Reinforcement always STRENGTHENS a response

• Punishment always WEAKENS a response

Reinforcement in operant conditioning

• Positive reinforcement - added a pleasant stimulus

• Negative reinforcement - removed an unpleasant stimulus

Both STRENGTHEN a response

• Overall outcome is desirable to organism

positive reinforcement

• A reward given by providing a pleasant or satisfying consequence

negative reinforcement

• A reward given by removing, reducing or preventing an unpleasant stimulus

Punishment in operant conditioning

• Positive punishment - added an unpleasant stimulus

• Negative punishment - removed a pleasant stimulus

BOTH WEAKEN a response

• Overall outcome is undesirable to organism

positive punishment

The delivery of an unpleasant stimulus after a response.

negative punishment

The removal of a pleasant stimulus after a response.

The consequence part of operant conditioning is typically worth 2 marks (or 4 x 0.5 marks). See below:

1. State the consequence from the scenario (e.g. Mary receives a lollipop).

2. Identify the type of consequence (e.g. This acts as positive reinforcement)

3. Justify your response (e.g. as it is the addition of a desirable stimulus)

4. Outline the impact on future behaviour (e.g. increasing the likelihood Mary

will behave at the supermarket in the future).

Maximising the effectiveness of reinforcement & punishment

• Order of presentation

• timing

• approppriateness

order of presentation

• The consequence (reinforcement/punishment) always follows the response.

• For example, you don’t fine the driver before the care has gone past the speed

camera.

Timing

• To maximise effectiveness – the consequence should take place almost immediately after the behaviour so the learner can make the associations between the behaviour and the response.

• For example, your pet dog needs to realise that he’s getting in trouble for biting the furniture rather than being chastised at a later time when he’s behaving well.

Appropriateness

• Reinforcement must provide a satisfying consequence.

• Ineffective reinforcement; for example, if positive reinforcement used stickers for a Year 8 class for good behaviour this might not be desirable, likewise giving money to a three-year-old for eating all their dinner.

• Punishment must provide an unpleasant consequence;

• Ineffective punishment: for example, inappropriate punishment may reinforce undesirable behaviour, such a a child sitting at the front of the class as punishment but actually enjoying the extra attention, thereby reinforcing the problematic behaviour.

Operant conditioning features

nature of response - voluntary (usually) but can be both

timing of (reinforcing) stimulus - after the response

timing of response - before the stimulus

role of learner - active

Summary - Classical and operant conditioning
similarities

• Both are behaviourist approaches to learning.

• Both are three-phase processes of learning.

• Both require several trials in order for learning to occur. For example, during classical conditioning, the neutral and unconditioned stimuli need to be repeatedly paired in order for learning to occur. In operant conditioning, learning is more likely to occur if the consequence occurs several times in response to a behaviour.

Summary - Classical and operant conditioning
differences

• Operant conditioning involves learning a voluntary behaviour, whereas classical conditioning involves learning an involuntary behaviour.

• Learners are active during operant conditioning, whereas learners are passive during classical conditioning

• Operant conditioning requires a consequence, whereas there is no kind of consequence during classical conditioning.

A social cognitive approach to learning

• Observational learning is a social-cognitive approach to learning

• Social-cognitive approaches propose learning takes place in a social setting and involves various cognitive processes. This approach to learning is closely linked to the social learning theory,

What is observational learning?

• Observational learning or social learning (modeling) occurs by watching others and noting the positive and negative consequences of their actions before then, if motivated and able, repeating such behaviour.

• The indirect nature of observing behavioural consequences for someone else’s actions means that observational learning is vicarious.

Hence, observational learning (or modeling) is often referred to as a type of

operant conditioning because the learning is controlled by the consequences of the behaviour.

Five stages of observational learning

1. attention

2. retention

3. reproduction

4. motivation

5. reinforcement

attention

The observer must actively watch the model when completing the task and observe distinctive features of the observed behaviour.

retention

The observer must be able to make mental representations (step by step) of the observed behaviour and its consequences.

reproduction

The observer must have the (mental and physical) ability to perform the action. Reproduction is restricted by physical limitation,

motivation

The learner must want to perform the behaviour. For example, Tom wanted to be polite after watching his older brother get praised for demonstrating the same type of behaviour.

reinforcement

The learner observes the model receiving positive reinforcement and this increases the likelihood that the observer will repeat the behaviour. (this is vicarious reinforcement).

Characteristic of the MODEL that influence the likelihood of attention

• Characteristics of the model (e.g. personality, attractiveness)

• Model has high status

• The model is distinctive

• Model is perceived to be similar in nature to the observer

• Model is known to the learner

Characteristics of the that influence the likelihood of attention

• Motivation and interest of learner

• Importance of behaviour to the learner

• Avoidance of distractors

• Learner is capable of repeating the model’s behaviour

For First Nations peoples, learning is

not only dependent on the relationships between learner and teacher, but also immersive; learning takes place by seeing, hearing, feeling, and doing. What is being learnt is inherently relevant to the way of life for an individual and community, and is connected to time, place, ancestry, and spirit.

In Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, learning is

relational and interconnected taking place in the community, where family and kin learn from each other. Additionally, learning is not broken up into separate subjects; instead, the connections between concepts are highlighted, creating a holistic process of learning.

for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, learning is a process that takes place within

complex systems of knowledge, meaning that knowledge and skills are based on interconnected social, physical, and spiritual understandings, and in turn, inform survival and contribute to a strong sense of identity.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander approaches to learning are multimodal by nature, meaning

that they use a variety of methods.

Systems of knowledge:

• Are patterned (created) on Country. Country encompasses both geographical boundaries and the spiritual, emotional, and intellectual connections to and within it.

• The practice of learning is heavily based on connection to Country. Connection to Country refers not only to the importance of the land but also the language, the protocols and the culture surrounding each way of knowing.

• consist of information that is highly relevant to day-to-day living and survival.

• are informed by spiritual and ancestral knowledge. For example, Dreaming stories, which are the foundation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures, communicate vital knowledges, values, traditions, and laws to future generations (Artlandish, N.D.)

- consist of information that is highly interconnected. For example, if someone were learning about how to hunt kangaroos, they would not simply learn about the weapons needed to hunt, but rather learn simultaneously about the kangaroo’s behaviour patterns, the plants they eat, how they grow, and the predators that hunt them. In this way, they learn all about the animal, and the role and impact this animal has on the ecosystem.

Systems of knowledge:

• are developed by

communities working together and sharing traditional expertise and knowledge. In this way, learning is deeply rooted in relationships between people. Learning begins with the relationship between teacher and learner, and understanding the connections between people. Learning is family-based, with families and communities teaching themselves. Learning is also intergenerational, with younger generations learning from observing and interacting with older generations.

Systems of knowledge:

• are informed by

culture, including who can learn what and where.

a learning map of the 8 ways Framework

1. story sharing

2. learning maps

3. non-verbal

4. symbols and images

5. land links

6. non-linear

7. deconstruct/reconstruct

8. community links

Summary – Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Ways of Knowing

• Aboriginal approaches to learning base the learner within wider systems of knowledge. Within these systems, learning is multimodal, relying on observation, experience, and connection to the land.

• Learning is dependent upon the relationships between teacher and learner and their relationships with Country – they must understand each other, hold respect for, and feel a connection in order for learning to take place.

• Knowledge systems reflect a knowing that the past, the present, and the future co-exist and that knowledge itself is a show of respect for community, culture, and Country.

The process of memory

Memory depends on three sequential processes called encoding, storage and retrieval.

1. encoding

the process of recording information in a particular way for storage. Memory may be improved by the quality/depth of encoding.

2. storage

keeping information in the brain so that we can use it later. We store information in an organised way in order to make retrieval easier and faster.

3. retrieval

relies on retrieval cues and refers to getting memories back from storage in order to use them in working memory. These often tend to be rough versions of the original memory rather than exact replicas.

Three key characteristics of encoding

1. The more elaborately we encode information at the moment of learning, the stronger the memory.

2. A memory trace appears to be stored in the same parts of the brain that perceived and processed the initial input. Memories are distributed all over the surface of the cortex, though not evenly.

3. Retrieval may best be improved by replicating the conditions of the initial encoding.

attention (info sm to stm)

New info will pass from SM to STM if we pay attention to it

how to get STM to LTM?

Info will pass from STM to LTM if we rehearse it in ways that give it meaning that allows us to hook into existing memories in LTM

how to pass info back from LTM to STM?

Information can then be passed back from LTM to STM when we need to plan, think, organise, etc.

Sensory memory

• has a virtually unlimited capacity

• The Sensory memory register briefly stores sensory information which bombard our senses and are maintained in their original form for a very brief duration.

• These sensory registries are necessary as they allow us to choose which stimuli we will pay attention to and register in our STM, plus what we will ignore

Sensory memory parts

iconic memory

echoic memory

iconic memory

• Refers to VISUAL sensory memory

• Duration: 0.3 second

• Capacity: unlimited

• Allows us to watch movies, i.e. a series of still shots projected on to a screen are stored in iconic memory long enough to be replaced by the next frame and so on, hence creating the sense of movement.

echoic memory

• Refers to AUDITORY sensory memory

• Duration: 3-4 seconds

• Capacity: unlimited

• Allows us to comprehend speech and songs as it links impressions of sounds with the next word/syllable we hear.

how to strengthen short-term memory?

• Information held in our STM is no longer an exact replica of the sensory stimulus, but an encoding of one, such as a word or a number.

• For information held in STM to be successfully encoded and transferred to LTM it must be properly rehearsed, otherwise the information will decay (i.e. the memory trace rapidly fades).

• Continual revisiting and rehearsing memories will strengthen the memory and renew/regenerate the memory trace.

Functions of Short-Term Memory

• STM holds a limited amount of encoded information whilst it is being processed.

• It is like temporary working memory where information from our sensory memory and LTM can be integrated.

• It holds information that we are consciously aware of, thus we can manipulate information enabling us to perform everyday functions such as recall a phone number of a friend or a password for internet access

• Thus STM forms our conscious awareness as it is involved in our thinking, feeling, perceiving, decision- making, daydreaming, creativity.

duration of short term memory

approx. 12-30 seconds

• Although it generally starts to wane after about 20 seconds although this can be extended using maintenance rehearsal.

capacity of short-term memory

5 to 9 (7 ± 2) bits or chunks of information

• e.g. letters, numbers, nonsense syllables such as XTK, or unrelated words

sensory memory summary

stage of processing - 1st

duration - 0.3-4 secs

capacity - virtually unlimited

form of material - unprocessed

encoding - no (raw form)

awareness - no conscious awareness

material -worked on - (cannot be worked on)

short term memory

stage of processing - 2nd

duration - up to 20s

capacity -5-9 bits

form of material - processed

encoding - mostly phonetically (acoustically)

awareness - people have a conscious awareness

material -worked on - (can be worked on or manipulated)

Improving short-term memory capacity

• Chunking expands short term memory. Chunks can be numbers, images, words, abbreviations etc.

• For example, we often ‘chunk’ mobile phone numbers (0407 655 234) and debit card numbers.

• Capacity of STM is still 7, but now its 7 bits or chunks of information

Rehearsal involves consciously manipulating information to either retain (maintain) it in STM, or to transfer it to LTM, or to aid the storage and retrieval processes.

There are TWO types of rehearsal:

• maintenance rehearsal

• elaborative rehearsal

MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL

• Involves simply repeating information (sub- vocally) to retain the information but without making any links or adding meaning to the information being rehearsed.

• It can also be used for visual/spatial information by creating mental maps.

• However, it is extremely difficult to transfer information.

ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL

• A process of making new information more meaningful by linking it with material already stored in LTM in order to aid storage and retrieval.

• For example, the teacher learning the names of students by rehearsing them in alphabetical order, thus representing a link to LTM due to previously learned knowledge of the alphabet.

Short-term memory – Summary of key characteristics

STM can either be:

• Decayed (due to a lack of rehearsal)

• Displaced by other/new information

STM can be manipulated:

• to increase the capacity by using chunking

• to increase duration by using maintenance rehearsal

The best way to transfer information to LTM is to encode information using elaborative rehearsal

• NOTE: If we were to repeat something often enough using maintenance rehearsal then transfer to LTM can occur but this would time consuming

Long-term memory

• LTM is a relatively permanent storage place and can hold an almost infinite amount of information.

• Information in LTM is highly organised (in semantic networks) to enables efficient retrieval.

• Sometimes we can’t access information from LTM due to interference or the failure to locate the right memory retrieval cue.

• Unlike STM, we use cues (often unintentionally) to retrieve information from LTM.

summary: Long-term memory

duration - relatively permanent

awareness - inactive: we are not consciously aware of it until information is retrieved

encoding - semantically (according to meaning)

forgetting - information is still in LTM but can’t be accessed due to

• failure to use right retrieval cues

• interference (retroactive or proactive)

• organic memory loss