The Widening of the Cold War, 1949-1955

general douglas macarthur

• 1880-1964

• was a career soldier

• was supreme commander of US forces from 1942

• accepted japans surrender in september 1945 aboard the USS missouri

• became the governor of japan during the period of occupation

hirohito

• 1901-89

• titular head of japan during its phase of aggressive nationalism and imperial expansion in the far east and pacific during 1930s & WW2

• emperor of japan during this time

US policy towards japan before 1947

• after japan surrendered after WW2 the US began sole occupation of japan according to an agreement among the USA UK USSR and china - agreement lasted till 1952

who was given decision making powers to help rebuild japan

General Douglas MacArthur

what did rebuilding japan include

re-education democratisation economic reform and demilitarisation

when was the reverse course policy towards japan introduced

1947

what was the reverse course policy

the USA was not focussed on the punishment of japan but instead it wanted the development of firm democratic institutions and practises towards an emphasis on economic reconstruction which will ensure political stability would be achieved

what was japans recovery viewed as by USA

essential element of its power base in eastern asia

who did the USA target instead of suspected war criminals in japan

communists

how did USA ensure that japan remained aligned to USA and became less vulnerable to communist influences

the restoration of key right wing conservatives in japans political, administrative and economic structure

what was a central element of the USA’s planning for post-war japan

economic stabilisation

how would USA achieve economic stabilisation for japan

• increased regulation of trade

• price controls

• a more efficient taxation system

• wage controls

• stricter lending criteria

• a balanced budget

• increased regulation of foreign exchange

why did USA ensure economic stabilisation in japan

• for control and austerity

• for accelerated economic recovery in order to align japan with the USA and its capitalist economic system

who was appointed as economic advisor to SCAP and given the responsibility of implementing the plan for economic stabilisation

joseph dodge

dodge and hayato ikeda (japans finance minister) agreed and produced ..

a super balanced budget - this set a target of a surplus of nearly 157 million yen($4 million)

what was the super balanced budget

all government income and expenditure was very closely monitored and conformed to strict guidelines

joseph dodge

• 1890-1964

• economic advisor for US policy in both germany & japan after WW2

• specialised in drafting plans for economic stabilisation

• succeeded in brining japans rising post war inflation under control

what was GATT

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (october 1947)

formed through a multinational agreement to manage international trade and attempted to minimise tariffs and duties in order to maximise international trade

what did USA demand as a result of japan wanting to become an active member of world institutions and particularly those linked to the west

USA demanded that japan join the GATT

what was the outcome of japan joining GATT

strengthened japans access to western trade but it also prevented trade with communist china from 1950

mao zedong

• 1893-1976

• founding member of the chinese communist party

• established the peoples republic of china october 1949

• marxist-leninist and hard-line communist

what impacted japans geopolitical significance to the USA

february 1950-communist chinas leader Mao formed a military alliance with the USSR

november 1950- chian joined north korea in the war against south korea

what was the impact of china joining the korean war

• led to the globalisation of containment and an increasing commitment on the USA’s part to see its role as a global policeman

• suddenly japan became a crucial component in the USA’s quest to contain communism in the far east

why was the san francisco peace treaty created

• it would restore japans sovereignty and provide security for japan

• in return for japans acceptance of US troops on japanese territory

who negotiated the san francisco treaty

japan prime minister Yoshida and USA’s chief negotiator Dulles

Shigeru Yoshida

• 1878-1967

• japanese prime minister

• supporter of japanese imperialism during 1930s - but was rehabilitated after WW2

• focussed on japans economic recovery

• his acceptance of US protection was known as the yoshida doctrine

john foster dulles

• 1888-1959

• American Secretary of State

• saw USSR as both strategically and ideologically expansionist

• developed the strategy of rollback

when was the san francisco peace treaty signed

september 1951

which allied powers did NOT sign the san francisco treaty

USSR and peoples republic of china

what did the san francisco treaty not do..

• place significant restrictions on japans economy

• place significant restrictions on its future political model

• identify japans responsibility for the war

• restrict japans future rearmament

• impose reparation payments for those southeast asian states occupied by japan during the war

what did the san francisco treaty do…

• recognise the full sovereignty of the japanese people

• force japan to renounce any claims to a wide range of neighbouring territories including korea , formosa(taiwan) the kurile islands the spratly islands and the paracel islands

what did USA require japan to sign in return for this treaty

bilateral security agreement - known as the US-japan security treaty (1951)

what did the US-japan security treaty give the USA

• unrestricted use of military bases in japan

• administrative control of Owkinawa

• the right to use military force to intervene in any international disorder in japan

• the right to veto japan offering military bases to other states

how many people did Macarthur order japan to establish a national police reserve (NPR) to be trained by a US military advisory team

75,000

when did the japanese government establish a force of 110,000 ground troops and 7600 maritime personnel - known as the National safety agency

august 1951

when did the US joint chiefs of staff announce plans for a japanese airforce

november 1952

what was agreed by july 1954

• a new 140,000 strong self defence force should be created

• supported by US funding of $240million and the sale of US agricultural surplus to japan

what was US policy towards japan driven by till 1954

threat of communism in korea

what led to USA’s change in attitude towards japan about now managing rearmament

rearmament had been an economic asset to japan but it also created some internal instability due to pro and anti rearmament attitudes

jiang jeshi

• 1887-1975

• chinas nationalist anti-communist leader

• after defeat in the chinese civil war(1949) he was exiled to become leader of the republic of china based on the island of taiwan

which two parties were involved in the chinese civil war

• nationalists led by jiang jeshi

• communists led by Mao

who was seen as inevitable of being victorious in chinese civil war

The Chinese Communist Party led by Mao

who won chinese civil war

The Chinese Communist Party under Mao- leading to the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949.

what was Mao’s concern about the USA due to his victory

USA would support an exiled jiang jeshi from taiwan - which would undermine maos aim of ensuring a united and intact communist china

when was the sino-soviet treaty signed

february 1950

when was the defensive perimeter strategy created

january 1950

what was the defensive perimeter strategy

A military strategy outlining the USA’s plan to protect key areas in Asia from communist expansion - particularly the USSR and china

what countries were apart of the defensive military strategy

• Japan

• Philippines

• Taiwan

• Thailand

• Australia

• New Zealand

• Okinawa

• Guam

• Pacific islands and Micronesia

what triggered a fundamental review of the USA’s strategic objectives and priorities

• september 1949 the USSR tested its own atomic bomb

• truman ‘lost china’ to communism

what was the review emerged as..

NSC-68

when was NSC-68 launched

April 1950

what was NSC-68

• stressed the urgency of building the USA’s political, economic and military power

• focussed on the globalisation of the cold war

• there was a powerful military emphasis on the application of containment

when and where was the division of korea into two zones of occupation agreed

potsdam - august 1945

what is this division referred as

the 38th paralell

which superpower had which zone

USSR -north

USA - south

when did USA create the capitalist republic of korea

august 1948

when did USSR create the communist democratic peoples republic of korea

september 1948

who did USSR put as leader of north korea

Kim II sung

who did USA put as south korean leader

syngman rhee

what were both kim II sung and rhee committed to

a restoration of a unified korea under a single leader

kim II sung

• leader of communist north korea

• communist but not a puppet of USSR or china

• fought the japanese and then fled to USSR where he had been trained to lead North Korea after WW2

syngman rhee

• 1875-1965

• leader of capitalist south korea

• lived in US for 40 years- only came back to korea because of USA

• powerful propogandist for korean nationalism within an apparently democratic context

• a committed nationalist

what did rhee want for korea

• rhee was both a nationalist an an anti-communist who wanted to reunite korea as a sovereign country that would not tolerate communism in any form

• this mean removing communism from the north but also establishing a stronger state in the process that could resist any threats from the USSR

• argued that defending a border with manchuria was better than defending a border at the 38th parallell

• rhee needed a guarantee from the US that it would protect south korea from an attack from the north and provide military aid to enable the south korean army to enforce the national reunification of korea

what did kim II sung want for korea

• wanted a reunified korea by using force

• this began with the development of of extensive guerrilla action by the north which aimed to destabilise the south and undermines rhee’s regime

what strategy did Kim II sung develop

winning external support - he wanted to use the collective power of the communist world in order to increase the norths strength against south korea and its western allies - as a result he pressurised both the USSR and china

what four issues did Kim II sung focus on in order to persuade stalin to support an attack on the south

• it would be a rapid and decisive victory

• there was a hardcore of 200,000 communist supporters already in the south

• there was a well organised communist guerrilla force operating in the south

• the USA would not have time to intervene

when did kim II sung turn to stalin for soviet support for a north korean assault on south korea

march 1949

what was stalins response to Kim II sung in relation to his pleas

• rejected kim II sungs pleas - aware of the 75,000 US troops in south

• reiterated his support and suggested sung should strengthen the guerrilla forces in the south in order to undermine the government there

why did stalins position change by 1950 regarding Kim II sungs pleas

• chinese communists had defeated the nationalists and set up the peoples republic of china

• USA did not include south korea in their defensive perimeter strategy

what did stalin agree to provide north korea

• 1600 pieces of artillery

• 178 military aircraft

• 258 T-34 tanks

• NOT committed to sending soviet troops to participate in a war

what influenced stalins thinking of soviet support for north korea invading south

• a war in korea might bring in the USA and this could lead to a US soviet conflict that could spread into europe. stalin did not anticipate a global conflict but he was conscious of the fact that europe was the epicentre of cold war confrontation at this time

• a united communist korean state as an ally of USSR would be positive outcome - it would strengthen soviet borders, put pressure on japan, and provide economic opportunities for the USSR

• if he stalled on supporting north korea , Kim II sung could turn to china for its primary support - this might undermine soviet influence in the region

• the USSR had nuclear technology by 1950

when did stalin make it clear to kim II sung that he would not commit soviet forces if north korea faced conflict with the USA

april 1950

why did stalin choose indirect military support for north korea

• a war between north and south would certainly draw the USA into conflict- this would necessitate the USA committing costly resources

• stalin was not prepared to engage in direct military confrontation with the USA as the USSR was at a disadvantage to USA regarding nuclear weapons

what were Mo’s immediate priorities in 1949

consolidating communist control in china and the consolidation of chinese territory through regaining control of taiwan from the nationalists

why was mao not concerned about the future of korea

• was determined to take no action to inflame the USA

• ordered less emphasis to be placed on china acting as a prime mover in the global struggle between communism and capitalist western imperialism - and greater focus to be placed on addressing chinas more immediate geostrategic priorities - particularly the future of taiwan

what activated chinas involvement in the korean war

response to truman ordering US 7th fleet to defend taiwan by positioning itself between china and taiwan

what did enlai argue about chinas involvment in the korean war

argued that the internal consolidation of the communist revolution without any external distractions must prevail

what did mao argue about chinas involvement in the korean war

august 1950 - argued that if the US imperialists won the war they would become more arrogant and would threaten china

when did china join the korean war

november 1950

zhou enlai

• 1898-1976

• first premier of the peoples republic of china from 1949

• focussed on consolidating the communist party’s power in china and reconstructing its economy

• after korean war he supported the idea of peaceful cooperation with the west

until 1949 what was the USA’s national security priority in asia instead of the growing korean divide

japan - the emerging struggle between north and south korea was of secondary importance compared to the need to strengthen the USA’s national security by protecting japan and reviving its economic strength

what was the USA biggest threat and focus on at this time

USSR and its focus was on europe rather than Asia - assuming japan and the defensive perimeter states were secured

what was achesons view of north korea in may 1951

north koreas purpose was to destabilise japan , southeast asia and the philipines and even to influence the position in europe - these areas in the far east according to acheson would become unsettled if a communist attack on south korea was successful

what did the USA request as soon as north korea invaded south

requested a special session of the security council

why was USSR boycotting the security council at this point

due to the west’s decision to recognise the republic of china under jiang jeshi as the legitimate government and not the peoples republic of china under mao

what did USSR boycotting the security council result in

The USSR could not use its power of veto in order to block security council action - therefore a resolution requiring an immediate ceasefire was passed without opposition

why did truman legitimise intervention in korea by turning the process into a UN intervention

• it removed the possibility of the USA appearing to be unilaterally implementing containment on a global scale

• intervention under the guise of UN action removed responsibility from the USA - but enabled it to ensure an international response was coordinated to achieve the ends it wanted

• believed the UN could deliver the protection of south korea

what was the result of turning the korean conflict into a UN intervention

the resolution effectively endorsed US policy and it offered international credibility to the USA’s intent to intervene and enhanced this by widening the intervention to an international scale

how many phases were there in the korean war

four phases

phase one of the korean war

• june-september 1950

• forces of the democratic peoples republic of korea advanced into south korea and reached a perimeter point close to pusan

• chinese troops were massed in manchuria in readiness for a move into korea

• through the united nations , 29 states committed to military,economic or medical aid

phase two of the korean war

• september-november 1950

• macarthur landed at inchon and succeeded in forcing north korean forces back across the 38th parallel

• october- mao sent 300,000 chinese troops across the yalu river into north korea

• this led to major counter-attack against the UN forces

phase three of the korean war

• december 1950-june 1951

• by january , chinese forces had pushed across the 38th parallel and captured seoul

• february- the UN condemned china as an aggressor

• due to his demands that US forces should push into north korea and engage the chinese - and use air strikes and nuclear weapons against them

• macarthur was dismissed by truman in april . macarthur wanted to commit the USA to a struggle for the reunification of korea - truman feared an extension of the war and bringing the USSR into it

• by june - the USA was indicating to china and the USSR of its willingness to negotiate a ceasefire

phase for of the korean war

• june 1951- july 1953

• neither side mounted any significant military offensives during this period - the lack of UN action convinced mao and stalin that there was a genuine desire for a peace settlement

• the USA had consolidated its relationship with japan and felt more secure in its involvement with the far east

• a natural disclination to cooperate with each other plus very protracted negotiations on post-war prisoner release arrangements led to long delays in reaching a final settlement

when did negotiations for the korean war start

july 1951

when was the panmunjom armistice agreed

July 27, 1953

the panmunjom armistice agreement confirmed:

• there was to be a military demarcation line with a demilitarised zone of two kilometres on each side - the line was roughly that of the 38th parallel

• all military forces should withdraw to their respective territories

• the repatriation of prisoners would begin

impacts of the korean war

• the long term security of both north and south korea was protected - a condition of this security was that no further warfare would take place on the korean peninsula

• long term consequence= an uneasy stability

• long term security of taiwan was guaranteed by the USA - chinas chance to take taiwan ( which is based on pro american capitalist democracy) was lost after the korean war as the USA was determined that taiwan should remain under nationalist control

• the war placed a huge economic pressure on the USSR which led to stalin accelerating the industrialisation of eastern europe - which in turn led to a massive reduction in the availability of consumer goods - contributing to growing discontent of communist control from eastern europeans

• NSC-68 - the USA would encourage nations resisting soviet political aggression and a as result containment was globalised

• led to the strengthening of military resources in western europe - western germany was allowed to rearm and the prospect of an early solution to the long term future of germany was lost

• led to a deepening of cold war uncertainty in europe

why was the korean war described as a limited war

• its purpose was to restore the status quo through the prevention of the spread of communism into south korea

• although it appeared to achieve this objective - the USA was now committed to ensuring that any further spread of communism in the far east could not happen

Increasing Cold War tensions by 1953, why?

McCarthyism and Communist infiltration into US - the ‘Red Scare’.

US dominance in the UN and the resentment from Soviets as a result.

Communist Chinese Civil War victory in 1949.

Sino-Soviet Alliance 1950.

Outbreak of the Korean War.

and USSR testing its first atomic bomb in 1949 too.