(topic 2) The Rise of Mussolini & the Creation of a Fascist Dictatorship 1919-26

Challenges to the Liberal State:

The Mutilated Victory:

• Used by Nationalists to describe the perceived mistreatment from allies

• Many Italians were dissatisfied with Peace Settlement & believed all aspects should have been granted

• Italy was allowed to receive German reparations & a seat in League Of Nations → many felt betrayed (Fiume became a symbol of discontent)

The Occupation of Fiume (1919):

• Orlando raised issue of Fiume with allies. Britain & USA felt it should remain part of Yugoslavia → request denied

• 50% Italian speaking people - meant it should be a part of Italy

The Occupation of Fiume (1919):

Events:

• September 1919: D’Annunzio led invasion (2000 former soldiers) to the ‘Free State of Fiume’

• Occupation lasted 15 months → Allied troops forced to withdraw

• Treaty of Rapallo: declared Fiume an independent city

Consequences:

• emphasised aspects of Fascist Regime- militia, salute, blackshirts, castor oil punishment for opposers, title of ‘Duce,’ public speeches (rise in membership of newly found Fascist Squads)

• ‘Proved’ how violence & physical action could achieve success

• Showed frailties of Italian gov

• Convinced many that the liberal gov was too weak- inability to deal with issues & mistake in accepting TofV could be corrected if Italy took what was ‘rightfully theirs’

• December: Giolitti’s gov sent army to remove D’Annunzio → unpopular amongst Nationalists

= occupation became a symbol of Nationalist defiance → more people became attracted to political extremism

Post-War Economic Crisis:

Inflation:

• Huge impact on cost of living → the Lira collapsed in value (more people became disillusioned with the gov)

• Military contracts stopped/soldiers demobilised → rise in unemployment (1919: 2million)

• Savings of middle class wiped, pensions/wages declined

• Companies that benefitted in war struggled to stay afloat (eg Fiat)

• 1921: Major munition companies collapsed

Rural Areas:

• Returning soldiers forcibly seized land in South → decreasing number of landowning peasants (many peasants had benefitted from war, enough to buy land)

• Left wing groups tried to resolve issues with labour owned farms & Socialist-led local govs set local wage rates/conditions

• 1919-20: Giolitti’s coalition ordered land confiscations to be legalised

Social Discontent (Bienno Rosso):

• 1919-20: Huge strike increase (Socialists&Communists)

• Occupation of Northern factories

• June 1919: Food riots → increase of food prices. Local govs forced to set up food committees

• Socialists called for a Communist Revolution (not serious enough to be threat to gov)

How did the Gov respond?

• Made concessions: minimum wage, 8 hour working day, recognition of factory grievance committees

• Compromises with workers & unions

Elite/Middle class response to concessions:

• Elites felt they should have more power than the working class

• Middle class (esp) were hit hard by the economic crisis

• Discontent with liberal gov → began to turn to Fascism & other extremist groups (promised a better alternative)

Political Developments:

Political Reforms:

• Dec 1919: Orlando introduced Universal Male Suffrage (as a reward for soldiers returning from war) in attempts to win more votes

• 1919: Proportional Representation introduced (to reduce amount of extremist parties in gov)

= increased amount of people able to vote by 11 million

Socialist Party (PSI):

• many socialists won local elections & controlled local taxes/services

• 1919: grew to become a mass party- growth of fear (encouraged by propaganda)

• Were divided between PSI, Socialist Trade Unions/Councils → often failed to work together (people became disillusioned with Socialists- promises to overthrow liberal gov not achieved)

• After 1920: threat decreased, wages rose, farm occupations decreased, fewer strikes (Bienno Rosso/Communist fear remained)

• Many became further disillusioned with PSI as they hadn’t achieved reform of liberal system → pushed people towards Fascist Party)

Catholic Party (PPI/Popolari):

• Pope lifted ban on organisation (recognising it would separate the Church)

• Founded Jan 1919- able to appeal to conservative catholics & some virtual socialists who wanted to improve living standards

• Emergence of PPI made it difficult for liberal elites to retain Catholic vote- more people turning away form lib gov BUT PPI were prepared to enter coalition with them as long as they promised political/meaningful concessions

Result & Impact of 1919 Elections: a ‘lost opportunity?’

(Amongst a time of political & economic upheaval)

• Nov 1919: PSI & PPI became most popular parties (156 & 101 seats)

• Giolitti’s liberals: 91 seats BUT remained in power until 1922 as PSI&PPI wouldn’t work together

• 1920: Liberals formed coalition with PPI but relations struggled

= Were the elections the beginning of the end for Liberal Italy?

Mussolini & the development of Fascism (1919-22):

Foundations of the Fascidi Combattimento:

• 21st March 1919: Mussolini founded new political group of ex-soldiers who wore blackshirts to identify themselves (outcome of event organised to launch it was poor) → Ideology = unclear

• Manifesto: minimum wage, 8 hour working day, confiscation of church property/inherited wealth, control of banks/stock exchanges, expansion of votes to women & younger gen = restoration of Italy’s greatness

• Mussolini emphasised growing threats of socialism, weakness of the democracy (failure to maintain law & order), harshness of TofV & the ‘mutilated victory’ (left-wing)

• Formed into small military units/squads to use violence against threats of socialism

1919 elections:

• Failed (fewer than 5000 votes) → on verge of collapse

Squadrismo & the Move to the Right:

• Fascism promised to defend Italy against threats of Socialist revolution

• Milan violence between Fascists&Socialists: no Fascist Squads arrested/closed down → showed Mussolini how powerful violence was. It was clear that army, gov, police would tolerate the Squadristi violence due to fear of Socialism (often helped)

• Moved to rural areas → invaded villages, ordered tax strikes, violence towards union leaders → local leaders (RAS) didn’t want to give up independence

• Mussolini put himself as leader of movement (took inspiration from D’Annunzio) & took credit for actions → used Squadrismo & newspapers to present himself as a moderate statesman → younger gen appealed to movement

Political Legitimacy & extent of support:

• Mussolini wanted to appeal radical & urban establishment figures → violence to Socialists created the Fascist myth (that they had ‘saved’ Italy from ‘war’ against Socialism). The movement became popular amongst landowners, politicians (that feared socialism) and shared the belief that Fascism was restoring law & order. Fascists worked with police & army to attack Socialist meetings

• Elections May 1921: the gov leaned towards the right & more conservative. Fascists achieved 7% of vote → gave Mussolini a position in Parliament (legitimising Fascism as a political force) & as a Deputy, he was now immune from prosecution

• July 1921: He proposed a ‘Pact of Pacification’ between Fascists & Socialists to prevent violence going too far & t make him look like a respectable politician/peacemaker → pact failed as many Fascists rejected (preferring violent methods) → Mussolini temporarily resigns as a leader

The foundations of the National Fascist Party:

• October 1921: Renamed & established the PNF → brought coordination to movement & Mussolini a greater contro

• Local branches were set up → saw the rise of membership by 100,000 in 1 year

• Gave party legitimacy, Mussolini was now able to take part in political movements & other parties began considering his inclusion in their coalitions

• Nov 1921: Mussolini declared opposition to divorce laws (to attract Catholic support as PPI didn’t support PNF)

The ‘New Programme:’

• 8 hour working day (exceptions for agriculture & industry)

• Physical & moral training in schools (future soldiers)

• Compulsory military service

• Influence on the Mediterranean = expanded

• Taxes proportional to income & in relation to needs of Italy

The Nature & Extent of Support:

• Movement increasing rapidly (key support being from landowners, business owners, teachers, uni students, craftsmen etc) → financial support from the wealthy & peasants/workers continued strikes

• Many insecure about economic future, threat of Socialism & the weak liberal gov → Mussolini continued to exploit fears of a Socialist Revolution (Biennio Rosso)

• Socialist & Catholic Trade Unions were breaking down → many workers essentially had no choice in joining Fascist Syndicates (workers also liked the policies of fair wages/prices) → employers tolerated it as it was a better alternative to Socialism

• Believed Mussolini could create a new Italy from the weak Italy (post war & weak libs) → hopes of creating a nationally united future & reclaim military victory from WWI

Mussolini’s gains to power (1920-22):

Political Unrest:

• After Nitti’s gov collapsed, Giolitti formed a new coalition (but the gov was unstable)

• May 1921: Facsist gained seats in Chamber of Deputies → revealed the growing strength & success of violent tactics

• Giolitti believe they could be ‘tamed’ BUT gave the Fascists more respect & 35 seats → Mussolini now decided to act in opposition (arguing Italy could only be saved by him)

• June 1921: Giolitti forced to resign & ‘trasformismo’ was no longer apparent (ideological divisions made it impossible to cooperate)

• July 1921: ‘Pact of Pacification’ → Nov 1921: ‘PNF’

• End of 1921: Italian politics in permanent state of crisis (1919-22: 5 govs collapsed), the PNF could exploit this & move closer to achieving power

The General Strike:

• All govs had been reluctant to combat Fascist increasing violence → Socialists decided to act and called for a General strike (August 1922)

• Mussolini used this as an opportunity to gather further support- speeches promising to end the strikes even if the gov didnt → promoting the gov as weak & taking full credit for ending the strike (even though it had fallen due to lack of support)

• Fascists destroyed offices at the Socialist Newspaper (‘Avanti’), delivered mail & ran the trains themselves

Taking Advantage of Political Unrest:

• Fascists now had the power to take over the gov but was unsure of how to do so

• PNF gave approval to win power peacefully → meaning Mussolini had to push for elections to enter a coalition

• Key figures in government were more concerned with preventing others from the role of PM rather than avoiding a fascist revolution

Establishing a Dual Policy (October 1922):

• RAS were pushing for a March on Rome & a violent takeover of gov BUT Mussolini wanted to be constitutionally appointed PM to gain favours from Italy & PNF (police/army still had power to put down Fascists)

• Mussolini adopted a dual policy: encouraging black shirt violence (making it appear he was supporting a violent takeover) BUT ALSO to work peacefully with politicians, persuading them the PNF were a serious party

• = essentially, he wanted to be able to control the squads as they would only be happy to obey his demands

Role of Victor Emmanuel III:

• King was uninterested in promoting Fascist regime- yet some of his family were sympathetic to Mussolini’s case

• Mussolini’s speeches made clear that the King had nothing to fear → ultimately his role led to appointing Mussolini as PM

• Sep 1922: Fascists had control of Northern Italy (local govs) BUT strikes/unemployment required attention to prove his efficiency → Mussolini toured the North & made his intentions clear (either are “allowed to govern” or they would “seize power by marching on Rome”) → squads began moving onto Rome, awaiting orders

• Mussolini still intended to enter a coalition peacefully → Giolitti had enough support & experience to prevent a complete Fascist takeover. Moderate parties (Facta) promised support → began negotiations for Giolitti to form a new ‘multi-party’ coalition gov, and would call for fresh elections in the Spring

The March on Rome:

Planning:

• 16th October: Fascist leaders met & drew up plans to march- The ‘Quadrumviri’ (leaders appointed to lead) wanted violence but Mussolini was more doubtful & hoped that the threat of violence wouldn’t be enough → he met with D’Annunzio to reach an agreement to reduce likely opposition from his nationalist supporters

• PM Facta informed army (who promised to defend Rome), advising that only ~10 arrests would be enough to quash movement → 19-25th October: 2500 men reinforced to block all routes into city, police/army guarded stations etc BUT Fascists were already moving through city to attend PNF congress in Naples

• Congress: Mussolini set down plans/commands for when/if they would march (wanting 5 cabinets), repeating that Rome would be reached at all costs (whether through confronting army or not)→ plans finalised by Quadrumviri.

• Mussolini was careful to avoid roles in organisation. He continued negotiations with Giolitti (Milan)

The March:

• 26th Oct: Fascist leaders told Facta & King that they were close to seizing force → ministers urged for Facta’s resignation but the king refused to appoint a new PM under a threat of violence, agreeing to defence measures

• 27-28th: squadristi took control of town halls, post offices without opposition → BUT their hold of Florence & Milan wasn’t strong

• The King approved a manifesto to protect the state → Fascists were stopped, the main body of 20,000 (50 miles from city) were confronted by police. Only ~5000 Fascists had reached assembly points but were in poor condition & ill-equipped. 28,000 troops waiting on their arrival

• HOWEVER… the King now refused to formally authorise the state of martial law but now refused. He never asked the military commander for an estimate of numbers (defence:Fascist)- thinking that there were 100,000 Fascists to only 8,000 troops (there was 30,000 of each)

Appointment of Mussolini:

• 28th: Facta resigned → the King went through motions of consulting all parties but changed mind, persuading Salandra (old advisor) to form a gov. He agreed with the condition that Mussolini would join the gov

• 29th: Mussolini rejected offer (he hasn’t gone to all the effort for only 4 cabinet posts) → Salandra now refused to form a gov

The King was left with little choice…

• He was afraid of a civil war, his Fascist support cousin wanted to overtake him as king, traditional system was collapsing → he hoped he would be able to control Mussolini if he was in gov so invited him to become PM

• 30th Oct: took a train from Milan & was made PM (Liberal elites felt he was on their side)

• Intending for the blackshirts to march into Rome the next day & when all deals had been made but most followers went home → columns of blackshirts marched through city to celebrate (essentially being the March on Rome) = little to no violence

The Creation of a Fascist Dictatorship (1922-26):

Parliamentary Compromise & Coercion:

• Mussolini relied on parliamentary support- Liberals & Conservatives were reassured by Mussolini’s coalition, believing violence would only be used to destroy threats of Socialism & that they could keep him under control. They believed that once Socialists were dealt with, they could absorb PNF into their own gov or dispose of altogether (with many thinking Fascism lacked a coherent ideology/wouldn’t last long in gov)

• Mussolini was keen to increase own power (even as PM) but had to overcome constraints of elites → continued to use threats of violence against Socialists & to persuade his conservative allies. (Socialists=effectively powerless and any breakdown of law&order was now down to Fascists)

• 1922: gave a controversial speech, emphasising the need to restore law&order, promising to uphold constitutional liberties → was granted to rule by decree for 12 months to do so (he could now pass laws with Chamber of Deputies)

Controlling the PNF:

• Membership had grown from 300,000 (Oct 1922) → 780,000 (end of 1923) - some just preferred the patronage the PNF offered for Italy

• Mussolini aimed to exert more control over own party, whilst ending violence of Squadristi & RAS (threats of opposition from longest leading Fascists)

• Feb 1923: Wanted to accommodate to Nationalists who then merged with the PNF (sending radicals to govern parts of Italy)→ removed potential opposition & expanded influence in South (attracted landowners, industrialists etc)

The Fascist Militia & Fascist Grand Council:

• Jan 1923: Mussolini’s desire for a more moderate party saw him dispersing the Squadrismo (after march on Rome) → he created the Militia to replace them

• Fascist Militia: an army of loyal fascists willing to ‘defend the Fascist Revolution,’ consisted of 300,000 blackshirts (paid by the state), Mussolini made himself Commandment General (removing power of RAS commanders), they pledged an oath of loyalty to him, provided as his private bodyguards → essentially had given them visible rewards (uniform) without any real importance (political), serving to strengthen Mussolini’s control

• Fascist Grand Council: (created at same time) it further cemented his control over movement, serving as the main gov body where leaders would meet & discuss issues (gov policy, international treaties, the next king etc), much was discussed/approved before it was sent to the Chamber of Deputies

• =essentially, policies were now created by Fascists, rather than the elected parliament

The Acerbo Law (1923):

• April 1923: PNF still only had 35 seats → PPI debated on whether to remain in Mussolini‘s gov → he responded by dismissing PPI members (placing parl in jeapardy)

• Mussolini reassured parl that he wasn’t an enemy, and that once he restored law&order, the traditional parliamentary gov would resume (ultimately didnt happen)

• The Acerbo Law was passed July: sought to end PR system, organised elections with parties selecting candidates, costs totalled & seats allocated in proportion to outcome (Mussolini threatened to close chamber if not passed, arranged for Militia to be present to intimidate) → Favourable to Catholic Church, liberals, fascists

April 1924 elections:

• Fascists had increased seats from 35→275

• Gov bloc: fascists, nationalists & liberals (66% =2/3rd of the seats)

• Catholics, Socialists, Communists: each less than 10%

Mussolini now had to completely remove opposition parties

The Matteotti Crisis (1924):

• 30th May: Leading Socialist Politician (Giacomo Matteotti) made an outspoken speech condemning the elections as corrupt & based on intimidation- calling for new elections

• Matteotti was kidnapped & killed by Fascists → Mussolini (now facing heavy criticism) denied having prior knowledge but evidence began to emerge (passing comments stating Matteotti should be ‘taught a lesson’) HOWEVER some historians question whether it was work of ‘CEKA’- Secret Squads

Outcome:

• Many Fascists arrested

• Protests against the murder, fascist tactics in general

• July 1924: The ‘Aventine Secession’- PPI & PSI walked out of chambers (seen as a vote of no confidence in Mussolini’s leadership) They refused to play a further part in parliamentary proceedings, hoping the King would dismiss Mussolini.

• Fascist pressure: threatened to withdraw support if dictatorship wasn’t created

King’s role: refused to act against the PM…

• Fearful that a dismissal would strengthen revolutionary left

• Terrified of prospect of civil war

• Was conscious of widespread support or Mussolini among political elites (still hoping they would be able to exercise greater influence over him) & the PNF

The Establishment of the Dictatorship 1925:

3rd Jan 1925: Mussolini announced the establishment of a Fascist dictatorship- run by himself (rather than PNF)

• Formed a new cabinet without Liberals

• Purged PNF of radicals who didn’t support new direction (RAS- local Fascist groups who had own leaders)

• Increased PNF membership saw new loyal supporters to Mussolini (mostly as a career rather than an interest in violence etc)

• Gained military support (by increasing officer/generals pay) & appointed a conservative monarchist in charge of army

• Brought in a new law to rid of all unions & oppositional parties (esp. socialist/catholic) except the Official Fascist Union

• Press censorship: tightened control on what was published, critical editors removed, all journalists had to be on an official register

• Freedom of Association ended

• The police: allowed to take action with suspected opposers

• New secret police (OVRA) & courts set up

• Replaced title of PM with post of ‘il Duce’

• Ruling by decree: (Jan 1926) issued 20,000 decrees within a month