midterm 2

American Psychological Association (APA)

professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

behaviorism

focus on observing and controlling behavior biopsychology study of how biology influences behavior

biopsychosocial model

perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual's health

clinical psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

cognitive psychology

study of cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and actions

counseling psychology

area of psychology that focuses on improving emotional, social, vocational, and other aspects of the lives of psychologically healthy individuals

developmental psychology

scientific study of development across a lifespan

dissertation

long research paper about research that was conducted as a part of the candidate's doctoral training

empirical method

method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities

forensic psychology

area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system

functionalism

focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment

humanism

perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

introspection

process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into its component parts

-ology

suffix that denotes "scientific study of"

personality psychology

study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique

personality trait

consistent pattern of thought and behavior

PhD (doctor of philosophy)

doctoral degree conferred in many disciplinary perspectives housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences

psychoanalytic theory

focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior

psychology

scientific study of the mind and behavior

PsyD (doctor of psychology)

doctoral degree that places less emphasis on research-oriented skills and focuses more on application of psychological principles in the clinical context

sport and exercise psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the interactions between mental and emotional factors and physical performance in sports, exercise, and other activities

structuralism

understanding the conscious experience through introspection

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation (eg, not always feeling your own eye-blinks)

Closure

the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete

Figure-Ground Principle

the Gestalt principle whereby one part of a stimulus configuration dominates a situation whereas other aspects recede into the background

Sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

Depth perception

ability to judge distance and three-dimensional relations

linear perspective

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.

Psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

audition

the sense or act of hearing

Olfaction

sense of smell

Gustation

sense of taste

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

subliminal messages

brief auditory or visual messages that are presented below the absolute threshold

Gestalt Psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

good continuation

A factor in visual grouping; we tend to perceive contours in a way that alters their direction as little as possible.

Principle of closure

We perceive whole shapes even when they are not actually present in the stimulus

pattern perception

ability to discriminate among different figures and shapes

perceptual hypothesis

An inference about which distal stimuli could be responsible for the proximal stimuli sensed.

Learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

reflexes

unlearned, organized involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli

instincts

innate tendencies that determine complex behavior

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to associate two or more stimuli

operant conditioning

a type of learning that associates a behavior with a consequence

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, anything that increases the likelihood of the preceding behavior

punishment

in operant conditioning, anything that decreases the likelihood of the preceding behavior

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

model

the individual performing a behavior that is imitated by another

vicarious reinforcement

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior

vicarious punishment

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior

Algorithm

problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions

anchoring bias

faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a problem to find a solution

artificial concept

concept that is defined by a very specific set of characteristics

availability heuristic

faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on information readily available to you

cognition

thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgment, and memory

Cognitive Psychology

field of psychology dedicated to studying every aspect of how people think

cognitive script

set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as an event schema

concept

category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences

confirmation bias

faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms your beliefs

convergent thinking

providing correct or established answers to problems

creativity

ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities

cultural intelligence

ability with which people can understand and relate to those in another culture

divergent thinking

ability to think "outside the box" to arrive at novel solutions to a problem

Dysgraphia

learning disability that causes extreme difficulty in writing legibly

dyslexia

common learning disability in which letters are not processed properly by the brain

event schema

set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as a cognitive script

functional fixedness

inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended

grammar

set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon

Heuristic

mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem

hindsight bias

belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn't

intelligence quotient

score on a test designed to measure intelligence

language

communication system that involves using words to transmit info from one individual to another

lexicon

the words of a given language

mental set

continually using an old solution to a problem without results

Morpheme

Smallest unit in a language that carries meaning

natural concept

mental groupings that are created "naturally" through your experiences

Overgeneralization

extension of a rule that exists in a given language to an exception to the rule

phoneme

basic sound unit of a given language

problem solving strategies

Method for solving problems

prototype

best representation of a concept

range of reaction

each person's response to the environment is unique based on his or her genetic make-up

representative bias

Faulty heuristic in which you stereotype someone or something without valid basis for your judgement

Representative sample

Subset of the population that accurately represents the general population

role schema

set of expectations that define the behaviors of a person occupying a particular role

Schema

mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts

Semantics

Process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words

Syntax

manner by which words are organized into sentences

trial and error

problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found

working backwards

heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on the end result

flashbulb memory

An exceptionally clear recollection of an important event is a(n . .)

absentmindedness

lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else

acoustic encoding

input of sounds, words, and music