AP psychology

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Structuralism

Focuses on analyzing the basic components of consciousness.

Functionalism

Examines the purpose of mental and behavioral processes.

Quantitative Data

Data expressed in numbers, suitable for statistical analysis.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive data capturing subjective experiences.

Descriptive Research

Research that observes and describes behaviors.

Case Studies

In-depth analysis of an individual or a small group.

Survey Method

Collects data through questionnaires or interviews.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment.

Laboratory Observation

Controlled observation in a lab setting.

Observer Effect

Changes in behavior caused by awareness of being observed.

Hawthorne Effect

Improved performance due to receiving attention in a study.

Observer Bias

Researcher’s expectations influence their interpretation of data.

Correlational Studies

Examine relationships between variables but do not determine causation.

Third Variable Problem

A third factor that influences two correlated variables.

Experimental Method

Controlled experiments to test hypotheses.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about relationships between variables.

Independent Variable

The factor manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The outcome or response measured.

Confounding Variable

An uncontrolled factor affecting results.

Operational Definitions

Specific, measurable definitions of variables.

Population

The entire group under study.

Confederate

An individual in a study who acts as a participant but is part of the research team.

Random Sample

Selection of participants by chance.

Representative Sample

Sample mirroring the population's characteristics.

Control Group

The group not exposed to the independent variable.

Random Experiment

Participants randomly assigned to conditions.

Placebo Condition

A control group receiving an inert treatment.

Frequency Distribution Table

A table showing how often data points occur.

Histogram

A bar graph representing data distribution.

Standard Deviation

Measures the spread of data from the mean.

Skewed Data

Asymmetrical data distribution.

Negative Skew

Data tail is on the left.

Positive Skew

Data tail is on the right.

Inferential Statistics

Methods to draw conclusions from data.

Statistical Significance

Likelihood that results are not due to chance.

General Principle

Foundational guidelines for ethical research.

Informed Consent

Participants agree to study with full knowledge.

Confidentiality

Protecting participant data privacy.

Deception

Misleading participants, used only when justified.

Debriefing

Explaining the study's purpose afterward.

Neuron

The nerve cell transmitting information.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers for neuron communication.

Gray Matter

Brain areas with neuron cell bodies; processes information.

Consciousness

Awareness of self and surroundings.

Circadian Rhythm

The 24-hour biological clock regulating sleep/wake cycles.

REM Sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep associated with dreaming.

Non-REM Sleep

Deeper sleep stages without eye movement.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Sleep Apnea

Breathing interruptions during sleep.

Narcolepsy

Sudden, uncontrollable sleep episodes.

Sensation

The process of detecting stimuli.

Perception

The brain's interpretation of sensory information.

Transduction

Conversion of stimuli into neural signals.

Bottom-Up Processing

Building perception from sensory input.

Top-Down Processing

Using prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

Describes memory in three stages: sensory, short-term, long-term.

Sensory Memory

Immediate, brief recording of sensory information.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory, such as skills.

Explicit Memory

Conscious recall of facts and events.

Concept

A mental grouping of similar items.

Algorithm

A systematic procedure guaranteeing a solution.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut for problem-solving.

General Intelligence (g)

Spearman’s idea of a single, overall cognitive ability.

Classical Conditioning

Associating stimuli to anticipate events.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through rewards and punishments.

Observational Learning

Acquiring new behaviors by watching others and imitating their actions.