AP psychology

Here's a concise definition for each term in your study guide. This will be thorough but organized by sections to make it manageable. Let me know if you need elaboration on any term.

Psychology Overview

  • Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

  • Structuralism: Focuses on analyzing the basic components of consciousness.

  • Functionalism: Examines the purpose of mental and behavioral processes.

Research Methods

  • Quantitative Data: Data expressed in numbers, suitable for statistical analysis.

  • Qualitative Data: Descriptive data capturing subjective experiences.

  • Descriptive Research: Research that observes and describes behaviors.

  • Case Studies: In-depth analysis of an individual or a small group.

  • Survey Method: Collects data through questionnaires or interviews.

  • Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural environment.

  • Laboratory Observation: Controlled observation in a lab setting.

Observation Effects

  • Observer Effect: Changes in behavior caused by awareness of being observed.

  • Hawthorne Effect: Improved performance due to receiving attention in a study.

  • Observer Bias: Researcher’s expectations influence their interpretation of data.

Experimental Design

  • Correlational Studies: Examine relationships between variables but do not determine causation.

  • Third Variable Problem: A third factor that influences two correlated variables.

  • Experimental Method: Controlled experiments to test hypotheses.

Variables

  • Hypothesis: A testable prediction about relationships between variables.

  • Independent Variable: The factor manipulated in an experiment.

  • Dependent Variable: The outcome or response measured.

  • Confounding Variable: An uncontrolled factor affecting results.

  • Operational Definitions: Specific, measurable definitions of variables.

Samples

  • Population: The entire group under study.

  • Confederate: An individual in a study who acts as a participant but is part of the research team.

  • Random Sample: Selection of participants by chance.

  • Representative Sample: Sample mirroring the population's characteristics.

Control Groups and Conditions

  • Control Group: The group not exposed to the independent variable.

  • Random Experiment: Participants randomly assigned to conditions.

  • Placebo Condition: A control group receiving an inert treatment.

Data Representation

  • Frequency Distribution Table: A table showing how often data points occur.

  • Histogram: A bar graph representing data distribution.

Statistical Analysis

  • Standard Deviation: Measures the spread of data from the mean.

  • Skewed Data: Asymmetrical data distribution.

    • Negative Skew: Data tail is on the left.

    • Positive Skew: Data tail is on the right.

  • Inferential Statistics: Methods to draw conclusions from data.

  • Statistical Significance: Likelihood that results are not due to chance.

Ethical Principles

  • General Principle: Foundational guidelines for ethical research.

  • Informed Consent: Participants agree to study with full knowledge.

  • Confidentiality: Protecting participant data privacy.

  • Deception: Misleading participants, used only when justified.

  • Debriefing: Explaining the study's purpose afterward.

Neurobiology

  • Neuron: The nerve cell transmitting information.

  • Neurotransmitter: Chemical messengers for neuron communication.

  • Gray Matter: Brain areas with neuron cell bodies; processes information.

  • Consciousness: Awareness of self and surroundings.

Sleep and Dreams

  • Circadian Rhythm: The 24-hour biological clock regulating sleep/wake cycles.

  • REM Sleep: Rapid eye movement sleep associated with dreaming.

  • Non-REM Sleep: Deeper sleep stages without eye movement.

Sleep Disorders

  • Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

  • Sleep Apnea: Breathing interruptions during sleep.

  • Narcolepsy: Sudden, uncontrollable sleep episodes.

Sensation and Perception

  • Sensation: The process of detecting stimuli.

  • Perception: The brain's interpretation of sensory information.

  • Transduction: Conversion of stimuli into neural signals.

Processing

  • Bottom-Up Processing: Building perception from sensory input.

  • Top-Down Processing: Using prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.

Memory

  • Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: Describes memory in three stages: sensory, short-term, long-term.

  • Sensory Memory: Immediate, brief recording of sensory information.

  • Implicit Memory: Unconscious memory, such as skills.

  • Explicit Memory: Conscious recall of facts and events.

Thinking and Intelligence

  • Concept: A mental grouping of similar items.

  • Algorithm: A systematic procedure guaranteeing a solution.

  • Heuristic: A mental shortcut for problem-solving.

  • General Intelligence (g): Spearman’s idea of a single, overall cognitive ability.

Learning and Behavior

  • Classical Conditioning: Associating stimuli to anticipate events.

  • Operant Conditioning: Learning through rewards and punishments.

  • Observational Learning: Acquiring new behaviors by watching others and imitating their actions.

Certainly! Below is a detailed explanation of the Memory section from your study guide, covering the key terms and concepts.

Memory

Memory Models

  • Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model:

    • Describes memory as a process with three stages:

      1. Sensory Memory: Initial recording of sensory information, lasts a fraction of a second.

      2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Temporary storage of information (about 20-30 seconds) with limited capacity (7±2 items as per Miller’s Magic Number).

      3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Relatively permanent and limitless storage of information.

Types of Memory

  • Sensory Memory: Immediate, fleeting memory tied to sensory input.

    • Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory, lasts about 0.5 seconds.

    • Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory, lasts 3-4 seconds.

    • Haptic Memory: Tactile sensory memory (touch-based).

  • Short-Term Memory: Holds information we’re actively thinking about or using, such as a phone number before dialing.

    • Related to Baddeley’s Working Memory Model, which includes:

      • Phonological Loop: Handles verbal and auditory information.

      • Visuospatial Sketchpad: Manages visual and spatial data.

      • Central Executive: Coordinates attention and information.

  • Long-Term Memory: Stores vast amounts of information over time.

    • Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory): Conscious recall of facts and experiences.

      • Semantic Memory: Knowledge of facts, concepts, and meanings.

      • Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and specific events.

      • Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform future tasks.

    • Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative Memory): Unconscious memory of skills and procedures.

      • Procedural Memory: Memory for motor skills and actions.

  • Eidetic Memory: Extremely detailed and vivid memory, often referred to as photographic memory.

Memory Processes

  • Encoding: Transforming information into a format for memory storage.

    • Automatic Processing: Encoding without conscious effort (e.g., space, time).

    • Effortful Processing: Requires conscious attention (e.g., studying for an exam).

    • Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart):

      • Shallow Processing: Surface-level features like appearance.

      • Deep Processing: Meaning and associations, leading to better recall.

  • Storage: Retaining information over time.

    • Memory Consolidation: Strengthening memories during sleep and rest.

    • Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Strengthened neural connections through repeated activity, believed to be the basis of learning and memory.

  • Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed.

    • Retrieval Cues: Stimuli aiding in memory recall.

    • Priming: Activation of associations in memory.

Memory Effects

  • Serial Position Effect: Tendency to remember the first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect) items in a list.

  • Spacing Effect: Better retention through spaced repetition versus cramming.

  • Next-in-line Effect: Forgetting what the person before you said due to focusing on your own response.

  • Tip-of-the-Tongue State: Temporary inability to recall a word or fact.

Forgetting

  • Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus): Memory retention declines rapidly after learning, then levels off.

  • Trace Decay Theory: Memories fade if not rehearsed or recalled.

  • Interference Theory:

    • Proactive Interference: Old memories hinder learning new information.

    • Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts recall of old memories.

Amnesia

  • Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall past memories, typically before an injury.

  • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after an event.

Special Memory Phenomena

  • Flashbulb Memory: Vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event.

  • Pseudo-memories: False or distorted memories.

Memory Techniques

  • Method of Loci: Associating items with physical locations for recall.

  • Mnemonic Devices: Strategies for improving memory.

    • First-Letter Mnemonic: Using initials (e.g., ROYGBIV for rainbow colors).

    • Keyword Mnemonics: Linking new information with familiar concepts.

    • Songs, Rhymes, and Stories: Associating information with catchy or memorable structures.