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Intro to Psych 2301
Who were the big names in psychology and their schools of thought?
Sigmund Freud - psychoanalysis
B.F. Skinner - behaviorism
Carl Rogers - humanistic psychology
Jean Piaget - cognitive development theory
Albert Bandura - social learning theory
Ivan Pavlov - classical conditioning
Abraham Maslow - hierarchy of needs and humanistic psychology
Erik Erikson - psychosocial development theory
William James - functionalism
John Watson - behaviorism
Structuralism
Structuralism was one of the earliest schools of psychology, and it focused on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components. Proponents of structuralism believed that by analyzing the structure of the mind, they could better understand how it worked.
Functualism
Functionalism was another early school of psychology, and it focused on studying the purpose or function of behavior and mental processes. Functionalists believed that behavior and mental processes served a specific purpose, and that understanding this purpose was key to understanding psychology.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism emerged in the early 20th century, and it focused on the idea that behavior is shaped by the environment through a process of conditioning. Behaviorists believed that psychology should focus on observable behavior, rather than mental processes.
Gestalt psychology
Gestalt psychology emerged in the early 20th century as a response to behaviorism, and it focused on studying perception and how people organize sensory information into meaningful patterns. Gestalt psychologists believed that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century, and it focused on the unconscious mind and how it influences behavior. Psychoanalysts believed that behavior was driven by unconscious desires and conflicts.
Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychology emerged in the mid-20th century, and it focused on the idea that people have innate goodness and the potential for personal growth. Humanistic psychologists emphasized the importance of personal choice, responsibility, and self-actualization.
Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology emerged in the mid-20th century, and it focused on the study of mental processes such as attention, perception, memory, and reasoning. Cognitive psychologists believed that understanding these processes was key to understanding behavior.
Evolutionary Psychology
Evolutionary psychology emerged in the late 20th century, and it focused on the idea that behavior and mental processes are shaped by natural selection. Evolutionary psychologists believed that many psychological traits have evolved because they helped our ancestors survive and reproduce.
Why is it important that psychology is a science?
It is important that psychology is a science because it allows for the use of empirical methods to study and understand human behavior and mental processes. This scientific approach ensures that findings are based on evidence and can be replicated, leading to a more accurate understanding of the human mind and behavior. Additionally, a scientific approach allows for the development of effective treatments for mental health disorders.
What is the scientific method?
A systematic approach to investigate phenomena, based on empirical evidence and logical reasoning. It involves formulating a hypothesis, designing experiments to test the hypothesis, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions based on the results. It is a rigorous process that helps scientists to understand the natural world and make predictions about future events.
Different research methods and how they differ
Quantitative research involves collecting numerical data and analyzing it using statistical methods.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, involves collecting non-numerical data and analyzing it using interpretive methods.
Mixed methods research combines both quantitative and qualitative methods to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon.
Action research involves collaboration between researchers and participants to address real-world problems.
Experimental research involves manipulating variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
Observational research involves observing and recording behavior without intervention.
What are the aspects of experimental design?
The aspects of the experimental design include identifying the research question, selecting the sample, assigning participants to groups, manipulating the independent variable, controlling extraneous variables, and measuring the dependent variable.
What is neuroplasticity?
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt throughout an individual's life in response to new experiences, learning, and injury. It involves the creation of new neural connections and the strengthening or weakening of existing ones.
What are neurons?
These are specialized cells in the nervous system that transmit information throughout the body. They are responsible for processing and communicating information through electrical and chemical signals.
Components of the nervous system
The different parts of the body are responsible for transmitting messages between cells and organs. This includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Frontal lobes
Separated from the parietal lobe by a space called the central sulcus, and from the temporal lobe by the lateral sulcus. This is generally where higher executive functions including emotional regulation, planning, reasoning, and problem-solving occur.
Pariental lobes
Is behind the frontal lobe, separated by the central sulcus. Areas in the parietal lobe are responsible for integrating sensory information, including touch, temperature, pressure and pain.
Temporal lobes
Separated from the frontal lobe by the lateral fissure, the temporal lobe also contains regions dedicated to processing sensory information, particularly important for hearing, recognising language, and forming memories.
Occipital lobes
The occipital lobe is the major visual processing centre in the brain.
What is conciousness?
Is your individual awareness of your unique thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations, and environments. .
Attention and aspects of attention
Alertness is the ability to remain vigilant and respond to stimuli.
Orienting is the ability to shift attention to a specific location.
Executive control is the ability to sustain attention and resist distraction.
Different stages of sleep and their definitions
NREM1: Light sleep, easily awakened.
NREM2: Deeper sleep, body temp drops.
NREM3: Deep sleep, hard to wake up.
REM: Active sleep, dreaming occurs.
Things that influence sleep
Physical pain
Stress
Mental health issues
Snoring
Sleep disorders
Light
Jet lag
Medications
Sleep environment
Sleep schedule
Caffeine & alcohol
Certain foods
Alcohol
Creates feelings of euphoria and lowers inhibitions, but it also severely impairs judgment, perception, and reaction times. It causes the most severe long-term damage to the liver.
Opioids
Work by acting on receptors in the brain, sometimes by mimicking the effects of neurotransmitters.
Benzodiazepines
are a class of drugs that function by interacting with the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid-A (GABA-A). Are prescribed to treat a wide variety of psychiatric and sleep conditions, but they are very commonly abused.
Cannabinoids
A type of chemical in marijuana that causes drug-like effects all through the body, including the central nervous system and the immune system.
Example of nature and nurture influences
Factors that shape human development, include genetic predispositions and environmental factors such as upbringing, culture, and socialization.
Genetics
The study of genes and heredity. Heredity is the passing of genetic information and traits (such as eye color and an increased chance of getting a certain disease) from parents to offspring.
Heredity
the passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another
Epigenetics
the study of changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code itself.
Examples of epigenetics
The study of changes in gene expression without alterations to the underlying DNA sequence. Examples include DNA methylation, histone modification, and non-coding RNA regulation.
Identical twins
Identical twins are more alike than fraternal twins:
Personality traits such as extraversion and neuroticism
Behaviors/outcomes such as the rate of divorce
Abilities such as overall intelligence test scores
Separated identical twins
Maintain the same genes while testing the effects of different home environments
Personality, interests, tastes, fears
Abilities/intelligence scores
Brain waves, heart rates
Adoptive families
same home environment while studying the effects of genetic differences
Adopted children more similar to genetic relatives than their environmental/nurture relatives
“normal” range of environment does not make much of a difference but is important if negative vs positive
Evolutionary psychology
the study of behaviour, thought, and feeling as viewed through the lens of evolutionary biology.
Sex
Biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male (XY) or female (XX) at birth
Gender
Physical, social, and behavioral characteristics that are culturally associated with male and female roles and identity
Product of the interplay among a person’s biological disposition, developmental experiences, and current situation
Things that affect fetal development
Factors that can impact the development of a fetus include maternal health, nutrition, alcohol and drug use, infections, genetics, and environmental toxins.
Major stages across the lifespan
Infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
Major stage theorists
Freud, Piaget, Bandura, Erikson, and Bowlby
Things that contribute to decline with aging
Telomere tips shorten, leading to aging.
Visual sharpness, distance perception, and stamina diminish; pupils shrink and become less transparent.
Immune system weakens; susceptibility to life-threatening disease increases.
Neural processing lag occurs; brain regions related to memory begin to atrophy; speech slows.
Difference of sensation and perception
Sensation occurs when sensory receptors detect sensory stimuli. Perception involves the organization, interpretation, and conscious experience of those sensations.
Things our senses do
Receive sensory information (stimulus), using specialized sensory neurons (receptors)
Transform the stimulation into a neural impulse
Deliver the neural information to our brain
Gestalt perceptual organization properties
Flashcard: Gestalt perceptual organization properties refer to the principles of visual perception that help us organize sensory information into meaningful wholes. These properties include proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, and figure-ground. Proximity is the tendency to group elements that are close together, the similarity is the tendency to group elements that share similar features, closure is the tendency to complete incomplete figures, continuity is the tendency to perceive smooth and continuous lines, and figure-ground is the tendency to differentiate objects from their background.
Classical conditioning
type of learning where we link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Operant conditioning
type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely if followed by a reinforcer or less likely if followed by a punisher
Reinforcement
any event that strengthens a preceding response
Punishment
adds an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior
Conditioning processes
Neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, and conditioned response.
Recall
Retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time.
Recognition
Identifying items previously learned
Relearning
Learning something more quickly when you encounter it a second or later time
Processes of memory
Encoding: initial learning of information
Storage: maintaining information over time
Retrieval: getting information
Stages of memory
1.We record to-be-remembered information as fleeting sensory memory
2.We process information into short-term memory where we encode through rehearsal
3.Information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval
Retrieval cues
›Best come from associations we form when we encode a memory- smells, tastes, and sights that evoke our memory of the associated person or event.
Priming
activation, often unconsciously, of particular related associations in memory
Context-dependent memory
Recall of specific information is improved when the contexts present at encoding and at retrieval are the same.
Mood-dependent memory
Tendency to recall events consistent with one’s current state
Hippocampus
a complex brain structure embedded deep into temporal lobe
Concept
a complex brain structure embedded deep into temporal lobe
Prototype
a complex brain structure embedded deep into temporal lobe
Trial and error (Problem solving strategy)
try options ruling out until success
Algorithm (problem solving strategy)
methodical, logical rule, or procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem
Heuristic (problem solving strategy)
simpler strategy that is usually speedier than algorithm but more error prone “rule of thumb”.
Insight (problem solving strategy)
not a strategy based solution but rather sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem
Confirmation bias (obstacle)
tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and ignore or distort contradictory evidence
Fixation (Obstacles)
inability to see a problem from a new perspective
Phoneme
Phoneme : smallest distinctive sound uni
Morpheme
Morpheme : smallest language unit that carries meaning
Grammar
Grammar : system of rules that enables communication
Broca’s area
Broca’s area: controls language expression, directs muscle movements for speech production
Wernicke’s area
controls language reception, involved in language comprehension
g factor
One general intelligence that is at the heart of everything a person does
Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory
•Children not born with all of the intelligence they will ever have
•Still influences the idea that “individuals learn better they receive information in their preferred learning style”
•No real evidence for this
Sternberg’s multiple intelligence theory
›Agreed that more to success than academic intelligence and that we have multiple intelligences
1.Analytical intelligence (school smarts)
Traditional academic problem solving
2.Creative intelligence (trailblazing smarts)
Ability to generate novel ideas
3.Practical intelligence (street smarts)
Skill at handling everyday tasks
Intelligence test
›Intelligence test: Method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others using numerical scores
More general capacity to perform in all areas
Aptitude test
›Designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn (SAT)
Narrower range of abilities than intelligenc
Achievement test
›Designed to assess or reflect what a person has learned (Final Exam)
Alfred Binet
Developed test to predict school achievement
Mental age
measure of level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age
Lewis Terman
Revised Binet’s test for wider use in the USA
Stanford-Binet test
Coined intelligence quotient (IQ)
David Wechsler
Created the most widely used intelligence test today
Yields overall intelligence score and separate scores verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed
Adult, school-age, and preschool versions
Crystallized intelligence
Crystallized intelligence: accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocabulary and word-power tests
Increases as we age, into middle ages
Fluid intelligence
ability to reason speedily and abstractly, when solving unfamiliar logic problems
Decreases with age; declines gradually until age 75 and then more rapidly after age 85
Motivation
Need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
Instinct theory
(evolutionary perspective)
Genetically predisposed behaviors
Drive-reduction theory
How we respond to inner pushes and external pulls
Arousal theory
How we respond to inner pushes and external pulls
Maslow’s hierachy of needs
How we respond to inner pushes and external pulls
Appetite hormones
.ghrelin, orexin↑ leptin, PYY ↓
Set point
“weight thermostat”
Testoterone
Most important male sex hormone
Stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty
Estrogen
Estradiol contributes to female sex characteristics
In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity
Bodily arousal
heart pounding
Expressive behaviors
Trembling
Conscious experience
panic, fear
James-Lange Theory (Arousal → Emotion)
Experience of emotion involves awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
Cannon-Bard Theory (Arousal ↔ Emotion)
Stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion
Note 
Flashcard (100)