Introduction to Psychology Final Flashcards

Intro to Psych 2301

Who were the big names in psychology and their schools of thought?

1. Sigmund Freud - psychoanalysis
2. B.F. Skinner - behaviorism
3. Carl Rogers - humanistic psychology
4. Jean Piaget - cognitive development theory
5. Albert Bandura - social learning theory
6. Ivan Pavlov - classical conditioning
7. Abraham Maslow - hierarchy of needs and humanistic psychology
8. Erik Erikson - psychosocial development theory
9. William James - functionalism
10. John Watson - behaviorism

Structuralism

Structuralism was one of the earliest schools of psychology, and it focused on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components. Proponents of structuralism believed that by analyzing the structure of the mind, they could better understand how it worked.

Functualism

Functionalism was another early school of psychology, and it focused on studying the purpose or function of behavior and mental processes. Functionalists believed that behavior and mental processes served a specific purpose, and that understanding this purpose was key to understanding psychology.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism emerged in the early 20th century, and it focused on the idea that behavior is shaped by the environment through a process of conditioning. Behaviorists believed that psychology should focus on observable behavior, rather than mental processes.

Gestalt psychology

Gestalt psychology emerged in the early 20th century as a response to behaviorism, and it focused on studying perception and how people organize sensory information into meaningful patterns. Gestalt psychologists believed that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century, and it focused on the unconscious mind and how it influences behavior. Psychoanalysts believed that behavior was driven by unconscious desires and conflicts.

Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology emerged in the mid-20th century, and it focused on the idea that people have innate goodness and the potential for personal growth. Humanistic psychologists emphasized the importance of personal choice, responsibility, and self-actualization.

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology emerged in the mid-20th century, and it focused on the study of mental processes such as attention, perception, memory, and reasoning. Cognitive psychologists believed that understanding these processes was key to understanding behavior.

Evolutionary Psychology

Evolutionary psychology emerged in the late 20th century, and it focused on the idea that behavior and mental processes are shaped by natural selection. Evolutionary psychologists believed that many psychological traits have evolved because they helped our ancestors survive and reproduce.

Why is it important that psychology is a science?

It is important that psychology is a science because it allows for the use of empirical methods to study and understand human behavior and mental processes. This scientific approach ensures that findings are based on evidence and can be replicated, leading to a more accurate understanding of the human mind and behavior. Additionally, a scientific approach allows for the development of effective treatments for mental health disorders.

What is the scientific method?

A systematic approach to investigate phenomena, based on empirical evidence and logical reasoning. It involves formulating a hypothesis, designing experiments to test the hypothesis, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions based on the results. It is a rigorous process that helps scientists to understand the natural world and make predictions about future events.

Different research methods and how they differ

Quantitative research involves collecting numerical data and analyzing it using statistical methods.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, involves collecting non-numerical data and analyzing it using interpretive methods.

Mixed methods research combines both quantitative and qualitative methods to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon.

Action research involves collaboration between researchers and participants to address real-world problems.

Experimental research involves manipulating variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

Observational research involves observing and recording behavior without intervention.

What are the aspects of experimental design?

The aspects of the experimental design include identifying the research question, selecting the sample, assigning participants to groups, manipulating the independent variable, controlling extraneous variables, and measuring the dependent variable.

What is neuroplasticity?

Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt throughout an individual's life in response to new experiences, learning, and injury. It involves the creation of new neural connections and the strengthening or weakening of existing ones.

What are neurons?

These are specialized cells in the nervous system that transmit information throughout the body. They are responsible for processing and communicating information through electrical and chemical signals.

Components of the nervous system

The different parts of the body are responsible for transmitting messages between cells and organs. This includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

Frontal lobes

Separated from the parietal lobe by a space called the central sulcus, and from the temporal lobe by the lateral sulcus. This is generally where higher executive functions including emotional regulation, planning, reasoning, and problem-solving occur.

Pariental lobes

Is behind the frontal lobe, separated by the central sulcus. Areas in the parietal lobe are responsible for integrating sensory information, including touch, temperature, pressure and pain. 

Temporal lobes

Separated from the frontal lobe by the lateral fissure, the temporal lobe also contains regions dedicated to processing sensory information, particularly important for hearing, recognising language, and forming memories. 

Occipital lobes

The occipital lobe is the major visual processing centre in the brain.

What is conciousness?

Is your individual awareness of your unique thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations, and environments. .

Attention and aspects of attention

Alertness is the ability to remain vigilant and respond to stimuli.

Orienting is the ability to shift attention to a specific location.

Executive control is the ability to sustain attention and resist distraction.

Different stages of sleep and their definitions

NREM1: Light sleep, easily awakened.

NREM2: Deeper sleep, body temp drops.

NREM3: Deep sleep, hard to wake up.

REM: Active sleep, dreaming occurs.

Things that influence sleep

1. Physical pain
2. Stress
3. Mental health issues
4. Snoring
5. Sleep disorders
6. Light
7. Jet lag
8. Medications
9. Sleep environment
10. Sleep schedule
11. Caffeine & alcohol
12. Certain foods

Alcohol

Creates feelings of euphoria and lowers inhibitions, but it also severely impairs judgment, perception, and reaction times. It causes the most severe long-term damage to the liver.

Opioids

Work by acting on receptors in the brain, sometimes by mimicking the effects of neurotransmitters.

Benzodiazepines

are a class of drugs that function by interacting with the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid-A (GABA-A). Are prescribed to treat a wide variety of psychiatric and sleep conditions, but they are very commonly abused.

Cannabinoids

A type of chemical in marijuana that causes drug-like effects all through the body, including the central nervous system and the immune system.

Example of nature and nurture influences

Factors that shape human development, include genetic predispositions and environmental factors such as upbringing, culture, and socialization.

Genetics

The study of genes and heredity. Heredity is the passing of genetic information and traits (such as eye color and an increased chance of getting a certain disease) from parents to offspring.

Heredity

the passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another

Epigenetics

the study of changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code itself.

Examples of epigenetics

The study of changes in gene expression without alterations to the underlying DNA sequence. Examples include DNA methylation, histone modification, and non-coding RNA regulation.

Identical twins

Identical twins are more alike than fraternal twins:

Personality traits such as extraversion and neuroticism

Behaviors/outcomes such as the rate of divorce

Abilities such as overall intelligence test scores

Separated identical twins

Maintain the same genes while testing the effects of different home environments

Personality, interests, tastes, fears

Abilities/intelligence scores

Brain waves, heart rates

Adoptive families

same home environment while studying the effects of genetic differences

Adopted children more similar to genetic relatives than their environmental/nurture relatives

“normal” range of environment does not make much of a difference but is important if negative vs positive

Evolutionary psychology

the study of behaviour, thought, and feeling as viewed through the lens of evolutionary biology.

Sex

Biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male (XY) or female (XX) at birth

Gender

Physical, social, and behavioral characteristics that are culturally associated with male and female roles and identity

Product of the interplay among a person’s biological disposition, developmental experiences, and current situation

Things that affect fetal development

Factors that can impact the development of a fetus include maternal health, nutrition, alcohol and drug use, infections, genetics, and environmental toxins.

Major stages across the lifespan

Infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

Major stage theorists

Freud, Piaget, Bandura, Erikson, and Bowlby

Things that contribute to decline with aging

Telomere tips shorten, leading to aging.

Visual sharpness, distance perception, and stamina diminish; pupils shrink and become less transparent.

Immune system weakens; susceptibility to life-threatening disease increases.

Neural processing lag occurs; brain regions related to memory begin to atrophy; speech slows.

Difference of sensation and perception

Sensation occurs when sensory receptors detect sensory stimuli. Perception involves the organization, interpretation, and conscious experience of those sensations.

Things our senses do

1. Receive sensory information (stimulus), using specialized sensory neurons (receptors)
2. Transform the stimulation into a neural impulse
3. Deliver the neural information to our brain

Gestalt perceptual organization properties

Flashcard: Gestalt perceptual organization properties refer to the principles of visual perception that help us organize sensory information into meaningful wholes. These properties include proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, and figure-ground. Proximity is the tendency to group elements that are close together, the similarity is the tendency to group elements that share similar features, closure is the tendency to complete incomplete figures, continuity is the tendency to perceive smooth and continuous lines, and figure-ground is the tendency to differentiate objects from their background.

Classical conditioning

type of learning where we link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Operant conditioning

type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely if followed by a reinforcer or less likely if followed by a punisher

Reinforcement

any event that strengthens a preceding response

Punishment

adds an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior

Conditioning processes

Neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, and conditioned response.

Recall

*Retrieving* information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time.

Recognition

*Identifying* items previously learned

Relearning

*Learning* something more quickly when you encounter it a second or later time

Processes of memory

Encoding: initial learning of information

Storage: maintaining information over time

Retrieval: getting information

Stages of memory

1\.We record to-be-remembered information as fleeting sensory memory

2\.We *process* information into short-term memory where we *encode* through rehearsal

3\.Information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval

Retrieval cues

›Best come from associations we form when we encode a memory- smells, tastes, and sights that evoke our memory of the associated person or event.

Priming

activation, often unconsciously, of particular related associations in memory

Context-dependent memory

Recall of specific information is improved when the contexts present at encoding and at retrieval are the same.

Mood-dependent memory

Tendency to recall events consistent with one’s current state

Hippocampus

 a complex brain structure embedded deep into temporal lobe

Concept

 a complex brain structure embedded deep into temporal lobe

Prototype

 a complex brain structure embedded deep into temporal lobe

Trial and error (Problem solving strategy)

try options ruling out until success

Algorithm (problem solving strategy)

methodical, logical rule, or procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem

Heuristic (problem solving strategy)

simpler strategy that is usually speedier than algorithm but more error prone “rule of thumb”.

Insight (problem solving strategy)

not a strategy based solution but rather sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem

Confirmation bias (obstacle)

tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Fixation (Obstacles)

inability to see a problem from a new perspective

Phoneme

Phoneme : smallest distinctive sound uni

Morpheme

Morpheme : smallest language unit that carries meaning

Grammar

Grammar : system of rules that enables communication

Broca’s area

Broca’s area: controls language expression, directs muscle movements for speech production

Wernicke’s area

controls language reception, involved in language comprehension

g factor

One general intelligence that is at the heart of everything a person does

Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory

•Children not born with all of the intelligence they will ever have

•Still influences the idea that “individuals learn better they receive information in their preferred learning style”

•No real evidence for this

Sternberg’s multiple intelligence theory

›Agreed that more to success than academic intelligence and that we have multiple intelligences

1\.**Analytical intelligence** (school smarts)

Traditional academic problem solving

2\.**Creative intelligence** (trailblazing smarts)

Ability to generate novel ideas

3\.**Practical intelligence** (street smarts)

Skill at handling everyday tasks

Intelligence test

›**Intelligence test**: Method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others using numerical scores

More general capacity to perform in all areas

Aptitude test

›Designed to __predict__ a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn (SAT)

Narrower range of abilities than intelligenc

Achievement test

›Designed to assess or __reflect__  what a person has learned (Final Exam)

Alfred Binet

Developed test to predict school achievement

Mental age

measure of level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age

Lewis Terman

Revised Binet’s test for wider use in the USA

Stanford-Binet test

Coined __**intelligence quotient**__ (**IQ**)

David Wechsler

Created the most widely used intelligence test today

Yields overall intelligence score and separate scores verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed

Adult, school-age, and preschool versions

Crystallized intelligence

Crystallized intelligence: accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocabulary and word-power tests

Increases as we age, into middle ages

Fluid intelligence

ability to reason speedily and abstractly, when solving unfamiliar logic problems

Decreases with age; declines gradually until age 75 and then more rapidly after age 85

Motivation

Need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Instinct theory

(evolutionary perspective)

Genetically predisposed behaviors

Drive-reduction theory

How we respond to inner pushes and external pulls

Arousal theory

How we respond to inner pushes and external pulls

Maslow’s hierachy of needs

How we respond to inner pushes and external pulls

Appetite hormones

.ghrelin, orexin↑ leptin, PYY ↓

Set point

“weight thermostat”

Testoterone

Most important male sex hormone

Stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Estrogen

Estradiol contributes to female sex characteristics

In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity

Bodily arousal

heart pounding

Expressive behaviors

Trembling

Conscious experience

panic, fear

James-Lange Theory (Arousal → Emotion)

Experience of emotion involves awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Cannon-Bard Theory (Arousal ↔ Emotion)

Stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion