AP PSYCH ALL VOCAB

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551 Terms

1

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

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2

Socrates and Plato

teacher/student duo that concluded that mind is separable from body and continues after the body dies, and that knowledge is innate (born within us)

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3

Aristotle

Plato’s student whose views were different. Aristotle derived principles from careful observations and said knowledge is NOT preexisting

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empiricism

the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge

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5

William Wundt

in 1879, Wundt and a couple of other scientists at Germany’s University of Leipzig created a machine that measured how long it took for people to press a telegraph key after hearing a ball hit a platform. People responded in about 1/10 a second when asked to press the key as soon as the sound occurred–and in about 2/10 of a second when asked to press the key as soon as they were consciously aware of perceiving the sound

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Edward Bradford Titchener (1867-1927)

used introspection to search for the mind’s structural elements

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structuralism

an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

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introspection

the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes. Unfortunately, the technique proved unreliable. It required smart, verbal people, and its results varied greatly from person to person

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functionalism

an early school of thought promoted by William James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function–how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

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William James (1842-1910)

teacher/writer who authored an important psychology textbook

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11

Mary Whiton Calkins

pioneering memory researcher who mentored under William James. She was the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association

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12

Margaret Floy Washburn

first official female to receive a psychology Ph.D. She also wrote the book, The Animal Mind and became the second female APA president in 1921.

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behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

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John B. Watson (1878-1858)

championed psychology as the scientific study of behavior. In a controversial study on a baby who became famous as “Little Albert,” he and coworker Rosalie Rayer showed that fear could be learned

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Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory

emphasized the ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect our behavior

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B.F. Skinner

behaviorist who rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior

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humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential, led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow (they developed humanistic psych cause they thought behaviorism and Freudian psychology were too limiting)

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cognitive psychology

the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems

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cognitive neuroscience

the combination of cognitive psychology and neuroscience, it is the study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

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20

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

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21

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

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22

natural selection

the principle, argued by Charles Darwin, that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in combination with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

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evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. Ex. evolutionary psychology asks ‘How are we humans alike because of our common biology and evolutionary history?’

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behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

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culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

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biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints

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behavioral psychology

 the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanations by principles of learning

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biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

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psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

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social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

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testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information

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SQ3R

a study method incorporating 5 steps: Survey, Questions, Read, Retrieve, Review

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psychometrics

 the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

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basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

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developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies our changing abilities from birth to death

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educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhanced teaching and learning

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personality psychology

the study of individuals’ characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting

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social psychology

the scientific study of how we that about, influence, and relate to others

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applied research

the scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

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Industrial-organization (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

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Human factors psychology

a field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe

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counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

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clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

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psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who are licensed to provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

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community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

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47

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (aka I knew it all along phenomenon)

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overconfidence

the tendency to exaggerate the correctness or accuracy of our beliefs and predictions

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theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

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scientific method

a self correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis

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hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

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operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

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replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

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case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

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55

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

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survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

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sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

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population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

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random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of being selected

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correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

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correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00). The closer the score gets to -1 or +1, the stronger the correlation

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variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

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63

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship. Ex. Gamblers, remembering their lucky rolls, may come to believe they can influence the roll of the dive by again throwing gently for low numbers and hard for high numbers

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64

Regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average

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experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)

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66

experimental group

 in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment

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control group

in an experiment, the group NOT exposed to the treatment

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random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

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69

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

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placebo effect

 experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is active

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independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

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confounding variable

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence the results

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dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

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validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it's supposed to

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informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

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debriefing

the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

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descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

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78

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

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79

mode

the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution. Ex. the mode is 3 in the distribution 1 9 4 3 8 3 6 7 3

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80

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then diviging by the number of the scores. The mean is 6 in the distribution 6 3 4 9 1 2 8 3

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81

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. Ex. The median is 5 in the distribution 1 3 4 5 7 8 9

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82

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value. Ex. the average salary of customers in a non expensive cafe might be $80k, but if Bill Gates walks in, then the distribution would be skewed since he's a billionaire.

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83

range

 the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

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84

standard deviation

 a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

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normal curve

(normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes

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inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize–to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

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87

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

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88

neuron

 a nerve cell

<p><span>&nbsp;a </span><strong><span>nerve cell</span></strong></p>
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89

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center

<p><span>the part of a neuron that </span><strong><span>contains the nucleus</span></strong><span>; the cell’s life-support center</span></p>
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dendrites

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

<p><span>a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that </span><strong><span>receive and integrate messages</span></strong><span>, conducting impulses toward the cell body</span></p>
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axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

<p><span>the neuron extension that </span><strong><span>passes messages</span></strong><span> through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands</span></p>
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92

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

<p><span>a fatty </span><strong><span>tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons</span></strong><span> of some neurons; enables vastly </span><strong><span>greater transmission speed</span></strong><span> as neural impulses hop from one node to the next</span></p>
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93

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

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action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

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95

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

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refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

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all-or-none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with full-strength) or not firing

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synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

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neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

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reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

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