Motor Skills Final

Thalamus

a forebrain structure that projects sensory information to specific areas of the neocortex

Focal Vision

a sensory system that leads to conscious visual perception of objects

Cones

photoreceptors in the retina responsible for color vision

Ambient Vision

a visual system that provides nonconscious information about the environment and an individual’s own movements

Rods

photoreceptors located in the retina that provide information about the location and movement of objects

Trigger Responses

complex coordinated responses to stimuli with a latency of 80–120 ms; slower than polysynaptic reflexes, but faster than simple reaction time

Time-to-Contact

the predicted time for an object to reach the plane of the observer’s eye, based on the pattern of optical flow

Tau

mathematical variable that corresponds to time-to-contact, defined by the retinal image divided by the rate of change of the image

Interceptive Skills

skills that involve the initiation of movement that coincide with the location of an object moving through space

Optical Flow

the continuous movement, or “flow,” of patterns of light rays that pass via the environment into the retina allowing an individual to detect motion, position, and timing

Haptic Information

information regarding sense of touch

Vestibular System

a sensory system that provides information regarding balance and orientation that assists in coordination of movement

Visual Proprioception

the dynamic interaction between visual and proprioceptive systems

Looming Reflex

a reflex that results in startle and defensive movement patterns

Apgar Test

a test of neurological integrity administered soon after birth

Emotion

a subjectively experienced psychological state or internal feeling that is usually directed toward a specific object or person and is typically accompanied by physiological and behavioral changes in the body

Charles Darwin

A 19th-century English naturalist known for his contributions to the science of evolution

John B. Watson

A early 20th-century American behavioral psychologist who viewed emotion as learned reflexes

Ethology

scientific study of behavioral patterns that occur in natural environments

Konrad Lorenz

A 20th-century European zoologist and ethologist who pioneered the study of animal behavior; known for research on fixed action patterns

Fixed Action Patterns

instinctive behavioral responses triggered by specific stimuli that are species specific

Sign Stimuli

an environmental stimulus that elicits a complex innate fixed action pattern

Motivation

the desire or willingness to act toward a goal

Limbic System

brain structures that are responsible for arousal, emotions, and memory; contains the amygdala and hippocampus

Amygdala

clusters of nuclei located in the temporal lobes of the neocortex that are involved in the experiencing of emotions

Hippocampus

part of the limbic system that is involved in the consolidation and the formation of memories

Consolidation

the process by which short-term memory is transferred to long-term memory

Neural Plasticity

the modification of neurons in the central nervous system by environmental stimulation

Amnesia

the loss of memories, including facts, information, and experiences

Retrograde Amnesia

form of amnesia in which an individual is unable to recall events that occurred prior to a brain disturbance

Anterograde Amnesia

form of amnesia in which an individual is unable to recall events that occurred following a brain disturbance

Neocortex

the evolutionary “new brain” that is involved in higher-order brain functions

Perceptions

interpretations of sensory input

Consciousness

a state of awareness of one’s own existence, sensations, thoughts, and surroundings

Emergent Property

a product resulting from several parts that interact as a whole

Ascending and Descending Reticular Activating System

a collection of nuclei in the brain that are involved in arousal

Neuromodulators

neurons that release neurotransmitters that alter neocortical activity

Locus Coeruleus

a nucleus the midbrain for neuromodulators that release norepinephrine

Raphe Nuclei

a nucleus the midbrain for neuromodulators that release serotonin

Substantia Nigra

a nucleus the midbrain for neuromodulators that release of dopamine

Pons

a brainstem structure that controls reflexive behaviors

Gamma Motor System

a neural tract responsible for muscle tone

Muscle Tone

resistance of a muscle to active or passive stretch

Affective

psychological states of feeling and emotion

Achievment Motivation

direction and intensity of effort in order to reach a goal

Motive

the psychological state that arouses an individual to act towards a desired goal or outcome

Viscerogenic

necessary physiological needs such as food, water, air, and so on, required to maintain the human body

Psychogenic

biosocial needs that are not necessarily required but are critical to well-being

Personal Fulfillment

achievement of life psychological goals such as creative satisfaction, personal growth, and emotional expression

Intrinsic Motivation

motives that originate from within an individual

Extrinsic Motives

motives that originate from the environment

Homeostasis

**a state of balance and equilibrium**

Autonomic Nervous System

a subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that regulates arousal via neural stimulation

Hormones

signaling molecules that regulate physiological and behavioral processes

Endocrine System

a system that regulates body functions and behavior via the secretion of hormones

Performance Expectancies

predictive beliefs about what is to occur in the future

Self-efficacy

the belief that an individual has concerning the abilities to perform a specific task

Autonomy

the ability to make informed and unbiased decision in determining behavior

Psychophysics

a branch of research that focuses on the structure and function of the sensory systems

Borg Scales

rating scales used to assess psychological responses to physical activity

Alfred Bandura

a 20th-century American psychologist who influence social cognitive theory

Reciprocal Determinism

the assumption that actions are the result of an interaction among an individual’s thoughts, the context of the environment, and the consequences of actions

Outcome Expectations

what an individual anticipates to be the results of his or her actions

Phylogenetic Processes

the portion of physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development that can be attributed to an individual’s genetic makeup

Ontogenetic Processes

the portion of physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development that can be attributed to experiences with the environment

Abilities

stable traits that are predominantly genetic

Cultural Knowledge

characteristics, beliefs, values, and behaviors associated with a culture

Sir Francis Galton

**an explorer and anthropologist** **known for his pioneering studies of human intelligence**

Eugenics

the study of the selection of desired human characteristics to improve future generations

Alfred Binet

French psychologist credited with developing the first widely used intelligence test

Intelligence Quotient

a number representing a person’s reasoning ability as compared to the statistical norm or average for their age

Motor Intelligence

the capacity to understand, perceive, and solve functional problems via motor behavior in a flexible, dynamic, and productive way

Specificity Hypothesis

a view that several distinct, specific, and independent motor abilities are the bases for each specific individual motor performance

Variable

an element that contributes to a particular result or situation

Ergonomics

application of psychological and physiological principles to the engineering and design of products, processes, and systems

Edward Fleishman

American psychologist best known for his work in industrial and organizational psychology and for developing a taxonomy explaining individual differences in learning

Factor Analysis

a statistical method used to describe the interrelationship among a number of observed variables

Intercorrelated

the mutual correlation between tests

Efficacy

the effects of an intervention under controlled or ideal circumstances

Effectiveness

the effects of an intervention under naturally occurring circumstances

Phenotype

the composite observable characteristics or traits of an individual or organism

Asymptotic Level

a point in the learning curve at which an individual does not improve in skill even with additional training

Maturation

changes that occur during the lifespan that are genetically arranged and influenced little by environmental factors

Development

physical and mental changes that occur during the lifespan due to experiences

Fundamental Motor Skills

skills such as walking, running, leaping, kicking, throwing, that emerge early in life

Gerontologists

researchers who study age-related physiological and psychological changes

Reliability

refers to the consistency of a measure or test

Validity

refers to the accuracy of a measure or test

Operational Definition

procedures or ways in which a researcher is going to measure behaviors or qualities

Raw Scores

the observed values

Deviation Score

difference between a score in a distribution and the mean score of that distribution

***Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient***

a measure of the strength of a linear association between two variables

Coefficient Scores

a statistical measure of the strength of the relationship between the relative movements of two variables

Psychometrics

a field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement

Teaching

the systematic process by which one individual transmits knowledge and information to another individual

Tasks

a specific piece of work or activity to be completed

Task Analysis

the process of taking a complex skill and breaking it down into its smaller components; typically used by instructors when teaching a skill

Target Behaviors

the actions that need to be produced

Target Skills

the actions a learner wishes to perform

Trial-and-Error

the process of varying the specific manner of performing a task by eliminating errors until a desired or preferred method is achieved