Myers Exploring Psychology Chapter 13

Social Psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Attribution Theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the persons disposition.

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

Attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in particular ways to objects, people, and events.

Peripheral Route Persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.

Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

Role

a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting conflict by changing our attitudes.

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Norm

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. prescribe "proper" behavior.

Conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Normative Social Influence

influence resulting from a persons desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Informational Social Influence

influence resulting from ones willingness to accept others' opinions about reality.

Social Facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

Social Loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

Deindividuation

the loss of self awareness and self restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Group Polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. it generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminating action.

Stereotype

a generalized belief about a group of people.

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior towards a group and its members.

Just World Phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Ingroup

"us" - people with whom we share a common identity.

Outgroup

"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our group.

Ingroup Bias

the tendency to favor our own group.

Scapegoat Theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

Other race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races.

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to destroy or hurt.

Frustration aggression principle

the principle that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can generate aggression.

Social Script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

Mere Exposure Effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking to them.

Passionate Love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.

Companionate Love

the deep affectionate feeling we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

Equity

a condition which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.

Self-Disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

By Stander Effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

Social Exchange Theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

Reciprocity Norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

Social-Responsibility Norm

an expectation that people will help those that are dependent upon them.

Conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

Social Trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Mirror-Image Perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other as evil and aggressive.

Superordinate Goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

GRIT

graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension - reduction - a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.

What do social psychologists study? How do we tend to explain others' behavior and our own?

social psychologists use sientific methods to study how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. They study the social influences that explain why the same person will act differently in another situation. when explaining others' behavior, we may - especially if we come from an individualistic Western culture - commit the Fundamental Attribution Error, by underestimating the influence of a situation and over estimating the effects of the stable, enduring traits. when exploring our own behavior, we more readily attribute it to influence of the situation.

How do attitudes and traits interact?

attitudes are feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in certain ways. Peripheral route persuasion uses incidental cues (such as celebrity endorsement) to try to produce fast but relatively thoughtless changes in attitudes. Central route persuasion offers evidence and arguments to trigger thoughtful responses. When other influences are minimal, attitudes are stable, specific, and easily recalled can affect our actions. Actions can modify attitudes, as in the foot-in-door phenomenon (complying with a large request after having agreed to a small request) and role playing (acting a social part by following guidelines for expected behavior). When our attitudes don't fit with our actions, cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we will reduce tension by changing our attitudes to match our actions.

How do cultural norms affect our behavior?

a culture is an enduring set of behviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group and transmitted from one generation to another. cultural norms are understood as rules that inform members of culture about accepted and expected behaviors. Cultures differ across time and space, and cultures change.

What is automatic mimicry, and how do conformity experiments reveal the power of social influence?

Automatic mimicry (the chameleon effect) - our tendency to unconsciously imitate others' expressions, postures, and voice tones - is a form of conformity. Solomon Asch and others have found that we are most likely to adjust our behavior or thinking to a group standard when a) we feel incompetent or insecure, b) our group has at least three people, c) everyone else agrees, d) we admire the group's status and attractiveness, e) we have not already committed to another response, f) we know we are being observed, and g) our culture encourages respect for social standards. We may conform to gain approval (normative social influence) or because we are willing to accept others' opinions as new infromation (informative social influence).

What did Milgram's obedience experiments teach us about the power of social influence?

Stanley Milgrim's experiments - in which people obeyed orders even when they thought they were hurting another person - demonstrated that strong social influences can make ordinary people conform to falsehoods or give in to cruelty. Obedience was highest when a) the person giving orders were nearby and was perceived as a legitimate authority figure; b) the research was supported by a prestigious institution; c) the victim was depersonalized or at a distance; and d) there were no role models for compliance.

How is our behavior affected by the presense of others?

in social facilitation, the mere presence of others arouses us, improving our performance on easy or well-learned tasks but decreasing it on difficult ones. in social loafing, participating in a group project makes us feel less responsible, and we may free-ride on others' efforts. When the presence of others both arouses us and makes us feel anonymous, we may experience de-individualization - loss of self-awareness and self restraint.

What are group polarization and group-think, and how much power do we have as individuals?

in group polarization, group discussions with like minded others strengthen members' prevailing beliefs and attitudes. Internet communication magnifies this effect, for better or for worse. Groupthink is driven by a desire for harmony within a decision making group, overriding realistic appraisal of alternatives. The power of the individual and the power of the situation interact. A small minority that consistently expresses its views may sway a majority.

What is prejudice? What are its social and emotional roots?

Prejudice is unjustifiable, usually negaitve, attitude towards a group or its members. Prejudices three component parts are beliefs (stereotypes), emotions, and predispositions to action (discrimination). Overt prejudice in North America has decreased over time, but implicit prejudice- an automatic, unthinking attitude - continues. The social roots of prejudice include social inequalities and divisions. Higher-status groups often justify their privileged position with the just world phenomenon. We tend to favor our own group (ingroup bias) as we divide ourselves into "us" (the in-group) and "them" (the out-group)prejudice can also be a tool for protecting emotional well-being, as when we focus our anger on blaming events on a scapegoat.

What are the cognitive roots of prejudice

they grow from our natural ways of processing information: forming categories, remembering vivid cases, and believing that the world is just and our own and our culture's ways of doing things are the right ways.

How does psychology's definition of aggression differ from everyday usage? What biological factors make us more prone to hurt one another?

in psychology, aggression is any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy. Biology influences our threshold for aggressive behaviors at least three levels: genetic (inherited traits), neural (activity in key brain areas), and biochemical (such as alcohol or excess testosterone in the bloodstream). Aggression is a complex behavior resulting from the interactions of biology and experience.

What psychological and social cultural factors may trigger aggressive behavior?

frustration (frustration-aggression principle), previous reinforcement of aggressive behaviors, and observing an aggressive model, and poor self control can all contribute to aggression. Media portrayals of violence provide social scripts that children learn to follow. Viewing sexual violence contributes to greater aggression toward women. Playing violent video games increases negative thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

Why do we befriend or fall in love with some people but not others?

Proximity (geographical nearness) increases liking in part because the mere exposure effect - exposure to novel stimuli increases the liking of those stimuli. physical attractiveness increases social opportunities and improves the way we are perceived. Similarity of attitudes and interests greatly increases liking, especially as relationships develop. we also like those who like us.

Why does romantic love typically change as time passes?

intimate love relationships start as passionate love - an intensely aroused state. Over time, the strong affection of companionate love may develop, especially if enhanced by an equitable relationship.

When are people most - and least - likely to help?

Altruism is unselfish regard for the well-being of others. We are most likely to help when we a) notice an incident, b) interpret it as an emergency, and c) assume responsibility for helping. Other factors, including our mood and our similarity to the victim, also affect our willingness to help. We are least likely to help if other bystanders are present (the bystander effect).

How do social exchange theory and social norms explain helping behavior?

social exchange theory is the view that we help others because it is our own self interest; in this view, the goal of social behavior is maximizing personal benefits and minimizing costs. Others believe that helping results from socialization, in which we are taught guidelines for expected behaviors in social situations, such as the reciprocity norm and the social responsibility norm.

How do social traps and mirror image perceptions fuel social conflict?

a conflict is a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. Social traps are situations in which people in conflict pursue their own individual self interest, harming the collective well-being. Individuals and cultures in conflict also tend to form mirror-image perceptions: each party views the opponent as untrustworthy and evil-intentioned, and itself as ethical, peaceful victim.

How can we transform feelings of prejudice, aggression, and conflict into attitudes that promote peace?

peace can result when individuals or groups work together to achieve superordinate (shared) goals. research indicates that four processes - contact, cooperation, communication, and conciliation - help promote peace.