Studied by 4 people
Gender Typed
the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
Gender Schema
help organize our experiences of male-female characteristics and help us think about our gender identity, about who we are.
Zygote
the fertilized egg. it enters a two week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
Embryo
the developing human organism from two weeks after fertilization through 8 weeks
Fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
Teratogens
harmful agents like certain viruses or drugs
Rooting Reflex
a baby’s tendency when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth and search (root) for the nipple.
Habituation
a decrease in responding with repeated stimulation. A novel stimulus gets attention when first presented, but as infants gain familiarity we repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner
Infant Memory
A- Our earliest memories are rarely before our 3rd birthday
studies confirm that the average age of earliest conscious memory is 3.5 years (childhood amnesia)
B- By 4 or 5, childhood amnesia gives way to remembered experiences
memories of our preschool years are very few because we organize our memories differently, after age 3 or 4. As the brain cortex matures, toddlers gain a sense of self and their long term storage increases
C- Although we consciously remember little before age 4, some memories exist during and beyond those early years
Schema
concepts or frameworks that organizes and interpret information (Our understanding of something)
Assimilation
interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing understandings (schemas)
Ex. Having a simple schema for a dog, a toddler may call all 4 legged animals as a dog
Accommodation
adjusting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporated new information and experiences
Ex. A child learns that all 4 legged animals aren’t dogs and accommodates by refining the category
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor Stage
Sensorimotor Stage- From birth to almost 2 years old, Infants take in the world through their sensory and motor interactions with objects
Ex. Through looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping
(Developmental Phenomena during stage):
Before the age of 6, infants lack Object Permanence- the awareness that objects still exist even when not seen. By 8 months, infants begin exhibiting memory for things not seen
B) Stranger Anxiety
Piaget Stage of Development-
Preoperational Stage- From 2 to 6 or 7 years old. A child learns to use language but does not yet understand concrete logic. Represents things with words and images and use intuitive (primitive) reasoning (thinking). Does not yet think concretely.
Preoperational children lack conservation because they have centration - they pay attention to only one aspect of an object or situation
They also lack reversibility- the ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse one’s thinking to the starting point. Ex. If 7+5 is 12, then 12-5 is 7.
(Developmental Phenomena During the Stage):
A) Pretend Play
B) Language Development
C) Egocentrism- Have difficulty perceiving from another’s point of view
Ex. A two year old is asked to show her mother her picture and she holds it up facing her own eyes
D) Still forming theory of mind- ability to infer other’s mental states
Piaget’s Cognitive Stage of Development: Concrete Operational
About 6 or 7-11 years old. Children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events, grasp concrete analogies and form mathematical operations - (concrete thinking is based on what is perceived and reflects actual experiences. It’s literal; right now)
(Developmental Phenomena during Stage):
A) Conservation- that changes in shape doesn’t mean change in quantity.
Ex. The same pizza cut into 6 or 8 slices is still the same amount as the original
B) Comprehend mathematical transformations
Ex. A 6 year old may take 5 seconds to tell you 4+8 is 12 and another five to compute 12-4 is 8. By age 8, she could answer the second question instantly. They can easily reverse simple math.
C) Seriation- arranging things in logical progression.
Ex. Lining sticks from smallest to largest
D) Transitivity- ability to infer a relationship between two objects on the basis of knowledge of their respective relationship with a third object
Ex. Tom is taller than Becky and Becky is taller than Fred, so Tom is taller than Fred
E) Class Inclusion
Piaget’s Cognitive Stages of Development
Formal Operational Stage- Age 12 to adulthood. People begin to think logically about abstract concepts
A) As we approach adolescence, many of us become capable of soling hypothetical propositions and deducing consequences: if this, then that.
B) Abstract logic/thinking
C) Potential for mature and moral reasoning
Scaffolding
claims that the cognitive development in children is dependent on how the first instructions they are given by their caregivers
Stranger Anxiety
The fear of strangers that infants commonly display. Beginning by about 8 months old.
Forms when a kid begins to form object permanence
Harlow’s Monkeys
Separated monkeys from their mothers shortly after birth and raised them in individual cages, which included a blanket, which they became intensely attached to. When the blankets were taken to be washed, the monkeys became stressed out. This attachment to the blanket contradicted the idea that attachment comes from an association with nourishment
They then put the drawing power of food up against the contact comfort of the blanket by creating two artificial mothers. one was bare wire cylinder with a wooden head and a bottle, the other was wrapped in the blanket.
Monkeys became more attached with the cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing mother. They’d cling to it when anxious
Critical Period
an optimal period shortly after birth when certain events must take place (expose to certain stimuli or experiences) to facilitate proper development
Ex. First moving object duck sees right after hatching is mother. From then on, it follows her alone- imprinting- the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
Infancy’s major social achievement
Attachment- An emotional tie that keeps young children close to their caregivers and showing distress on separation
Secure Attachment
in their mother presence, children played comfortably and happily explored their new environment
A- When the mother leaves, they are distressed, when she returns they seek contact from her
Insecure Attachment
They are less likely to explore their surrounding. They may even cling to their mothers
A- When she leaves, they either cry loudly and remain upset or seem indifferent to their mothers going and returning
What causes secure attachment?
The Mother’s behavior's
sensitive, responsive mothers had infants who showed secure attachment
insensitive, unresponsive mothers had infants who often became insecurely attached
follow up studies confirm sensitive mothers and fathers tend to have securely attached infants
Childhood’s major social achievement
Positive sense of self
Self concept- a sense of their own identity and personal worth
Parenting Styles: Authoritarian, Permissive & Authoritative
Authoritarian- parents who impose rules and expect obedience.
Ex. Don’t interrupt, clean your room, don’t stay out late or you’ll be grounded. Why? because I said so
Permissive- parents who submit to their child’s desires, make few demands and use little punishment
Authoritative- parents who are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting and enforcing rules and explaining the reasons
With older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions when making the rules
What studies reveal about parenting style & children with the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, confidence and social competence
Studies reveal that children with the highest self esteem, self reliance, and social competence usually have Authoritative parents
Adolescence
the transition period between childhood and adulthood, extending from puberty to independent adult status
Kohlberg’s stages of Morality (know the names of all 3 stages, the ages of all 3 stages and the description of all 3 stages)
Preconventional Morality- before age 9, most children have a preconventional morality of self interest. They obey either to avoid punishment or to gain concrete rewards.
Ex. If you save your wife, you’re a hero"
Conventional Morality- by early adolescence, morality usually evolves to a more conventional level that caves for others and upholds laws and social rules simply because they are laws and rules.
Ex. If you steal the drug, everyone will think you’re a criminal
Postconventional Morality- some who develop the abstract reasoning of formal operational though may come to a 3rd level. post conventional morality affirms people’s agreed- upon rights or follows what one personally perceives asbosic ethical principle
Ex. People have a right to live
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial crisis (know the names of all 8 stages, the ages of all 8 stages and the description of all 8 ages) **First 4
Trust v. Mistrust- Infancy (birth to 1) If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust
2)Autonomy (Independence) v. Shame and Doubt- Toddlerhood (1 and 2) Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities
3)Initiative v. Guilt- Preschooler (3-5 years old). Preschoolers want to explore their physical and social environment and learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent
4)Competence v. Inferiority- Elementary school (6 to puberty) children learn to pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
Success brings good feelings, failure creates a negative self image
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial crisis (know the names of all 8 stages, the ages of all 8 stages and the description of all 8 ages) **Last 4
5) identity v. Role confusion- Adolescence (teen years to the 20’s) teens work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are
Who am I as an individual? What do I want to do with my life? What values should I live by? What do I believe in?
To do this teens tend to turn away from their parents and towards their peers
Intimacy v. Isolation- Young adulthood (20’s to early 40’s) Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel isolated
Generativity v. Stagnation- Middle adulthood (40’s to 60’s) In middle age, people discover a sense of contribution to the world. usually through family and work, or they may a lack of purpose
Integrity v. Despair- late adulthood (Late 60’s and up) when reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure.
Ex. Either you accept the things you’ve done or regret them.
The good news about health as you get older
People over 65 suffer fewer short-term aliments such as the flu and cold viruses
Alzheimer’s Disease
a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plagues, often with onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities
Cross-Sectional Study
research that companies people of different ages at the same time. Shows that age is less a predictor of memory and intelligence than is proximity to death
Longitudinal Study
research that follows and retests the same people overtime. Shows that age is less a predictor of memory and intelligence than is proximity to death
Crystalized intelligence and how it’s affected by age
our accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocabulary and analogies tests- increases up to old age
Fluid Intelligence and how it’s affected by age
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, as tends to decrease in age especially during late adulthood
The Social Clock
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood and retirement
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