Chapter 3: Biological and Psychological Positivism

Positivism

& Theorist

A theoretical approach to thinking about the relationship between science and society, found in the early writings of Auguste Comte (1798–1857).

Represents a shift from philosophizing to a stronger scientific analysis. Promotes the systemic, scientific study of social problems (i.e. to classify, quantify and record facts).

• Belief that society is always progressing, and that scientists can understand how society works through measurement.

  • This can help overcome social problems through using scientific methods.

How Positivists Perceive Crime

• Social Consensus: There is a social consensus in society, and crime is a violation of the social consensus.

• Deviance: Looking at antisocial behaviors or subcultures within a given society.  

• Empirical Measurement: Theory that crime can be measured in some way, quantified to determine how frequent crime is occurring. Positivists are big on measurables to determine how frequently crime is occurring.

  • This aligns with the Realist Measurement Approach.

  • Aligns with the Individualist Criminological Explanation.

Science of Criminology

Three Major Approaches

• Biological: Features within an individuals biology that causes them to commit crime. Something they do as a result of a cognitive impairment of biological flaw.

  • Associated with Cesare Lombroso (founder), William Sheldon, Charles Darwin.

• Psychological: Focused on the processes of the mind in explaining crime.

  • Sigmund Freud, Hans Eysenck, Jean Piaget.

  • These two theories differ for the fact that biological believes that criminals are born, whereas psychological believes that criminals are made (sick and can be fixed).

• Sociological

Emergence of Positivism

Emerged in the 19th century, a period where capitalism flourished in Europe.

• Period of mass production (over agriculture and merchant).

• Period of technological development.

  • And the evolution of science influence.

• Peasants and villagers began to move into large cities.

• Led to emergence of the working class (proletariat), and the bourgeoisie (capitalist class).

Proletariat

A term associated with Karl Marx that refers to the class of individuals in a capitalist society who have no means of production of their own and must subsist economically by selling their wage labour to owners of capital.

• The rise of the proletariat as a distinct, growing class was accompanied by major industrial, social, and political conflict and upheaval.

Positivism in Crime Characteristics

• Different from classical theory.

  • Instead focus only on the offender (innate characteristics, things unique to them - whether biology or psychology).

• Ignore the offence, focus on offender’s biology and psychology (e.g. faulty genetics, impairment).

• Find the answer in the measurable science.

• Measure unrecorded crime and deviant behavior (Realist Measurement).

  • Self-report surveys, interviews, and victimization to find out the dark crime (who is offending and who are victims).

• The cause of crime is a character flaw (illness, biochemistry, deficiency).

  • People can be fixed through addressing these deficiencies.

Bourgeosie (Capitalists)

Term used by Karl Marx to refer to the corporate or capitalist class in modern societies that are a part of the new ruling class (socialist perspective).

• Faced with opposition from the working class over the conditions and nature of work, and in some cases over the very ownership and control of production in society.

Sigmund Freud & Theory

Psychological Positivism

Figure Associated & Psychoanalytical Theory

Focused on the processes of the mind in explaining crime. Although he did not directly relate this to crime.

• Criminal behavior occurs when internal controls are unable to restrain the primitive, aggressive, antisocial instincts of the Id.

• Criminal behavior is the consequence of an individuals failure to progress through the early stages of development.

• Believed that a personality was composed of 3 forces.

Imperialism

Domination by one or more countries over others for political and economic objectives. It can be effected by force or arms or through the economic and political power exercised by state and corporate agencies.

Charles Darwin attempted to justify this, along with colonialism and white superiority over other races.

Positivist Method Assumptions

3

• Neutral-Value Free Observers: Social scientists are neutral observers of the world, and their work is “value-free.” The role of the scientist is merely to record the “facts” without bias.

• Empirical Measurement: Classify and quantify human experience and behaviours through a range of objective tests (measurement of human activity).

• Natural Laws: As with the natural world, the social world is seen to obey general laws of operation.

  • Task is to uncover the causal determinants of human behaviour (i.e., to identify cause-and-effect relationships), and thus both predict and modify future behaviour outcomes.

Psychological Positivism

Characteristics of Positivism

Crime results from mental processes, not biology alone. Emphasizes individual personality traits.

• Combines nature and nurture.

  • Poor impulse control

  • Aggression

  • Low empathy

  • Weak moral development

• Focuses on how people think, not just what they do

  • Childhood development

  • Conditioning and learning

  • Emotional regulation

• Major theories include:

  • Psychoanalytic theory (id, ego, superego)

  • Conditioning and learning theories

  • Personality trait theories

3 Forces that Make Up a Person and Figure Associated

Psychoanalytical Theory

Psychological Positivism

Associated with Sigmund Freud. A psychoanalytical theory that was adapted to crime.

He believed that personality is composed of 3 forces:

1. The Id: Biological drives and needs (food, water, activity).The impulsive, instinct-driven part of personality that seeks immediate satisfaction, and crime can occur when a person acts on these urges without restraint.

2. The Ego: Screens, controls and directs the impulses of the Id (controls and directs impulses). Rational, decision-making part of personality that controls and balances the Id’s impulses with reality and consequences.

3. Super Ego: Our consciousness (moral compass). The moral conscience that represents societal values and guilt, discouraging wrongdoing by telling us what is right and wrong.

Who is Associated with Biological and Psychological Theory?

Biological:

• Cesare Lombroso: Founder of biological criminology (biological positivism).

  • Enrico Ferry, Rafielo Garipho (1876).

• William Sheldon: Developed theory of somatotypes, linking human body types to personality traits and behavioral tendencies.

Psychological:

• Sigmund Freud: Focused on mental processes and the unconscious mind. Development of the Id, Ego and Superego.

• Hans Eysenck: Biosocial explanations and personalities capable of crime.

• Jean Piaget:

Positvism in Crime

Based on the idea of a scientific understanding of crime and criminality.

• It assumes that there is a distinction between the “normal” and the “deviant,” and it attempts to study the specific factors that give rise to deviant or criminal behaviour.

  • Deviants will have some type of biological, physical or psychological characteristic that differentiates them from the normal person.

• This involves looking at the biological and social conditioning that contributes to a crime.

Biological Positivism

Characteristics of Positivism

• Crime is linked to genetic inheritance or biological trait. Some people may be born with a predisposition toward crime

• Emphasizes nature over nurture.

• Looks at brain structure, neurochemical imbalances, and hormones

  • Genetics (family history of crime)

  • Brain abnormalities or injuries

  • Low arousal levels (seeking stimulation)

• Early theories linked crime to physical characteristics (now largely discredited).

• Crime seen as less a choice, more a result of biological makeup.

Difference from Classical Theory

Crime is not a matter of individual choice (classical).

• Attempted to understand crime through philosophy, and philosophical arguments.

• Classical focuses on crime being the rational choice of the offender. It is something that people may engage in, and their actions can be fluid (e.g. making a bad choice one day, and choosing to act within society the next day).

Positivism is explained by examining individual differences that are a part of the person as a whole (biological and psychological).

• This looks at instead how people are predisposed toward criminal behavior.

Origins of Positivist Perspective

2

Scientific research attempted to provide biological explanations for criminal behaviour.

• Explains crime through physical and genetic traits, treating criminality as innate and largely unchangeable.

The other focused on psychological factors associated with criminality.

• Focuses on mental processes, personality, and emotional development, viewing crime as the result of abnormal or impaired psychological functioning.

While both approaches reject free will, biological theories emphasize control and classification, whereas psychological theories emphasize diagnosis and treatment.

Biological Positivism

(Also Known as)

Who Created the Work

• Also known as the Italian school, because its most influential members were Italian criminal anthropologists.

  • Popularized through the work of Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferry, Rafielo Garipho (1876).

  • Thought criminals were closer to an ape over a human being.

• Establish a link between criminality and the assumption that certain individuals are born criminals (atavism).

  • Look to distinguish different types of human individuals and to classify them on the basis of racial and biological difference.

Atavism

A concept used by Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909) to describe a type of criminal he called the “born criminal.”

• The atavistic criminal was one representing an earlier stage of human evolution (comparison to the ape).

• Lombroso identified this type of criminal through several physical characteristics. This includes protruding teeth, asymmetric face, large ears, supernumerary fingers and toes, eye defects, affinity towards tattoos.

• His work has largely been discredited.

Binet Scale (Simon Binet Scale)

A test used to determine the relative development of intelligence, especially of children. Began in France in 1904.

• Developed by Alfred Binet a psychologist (tasked with this by the French Government).

• Distinguish between intellectually normal and inferior children.

• Binet cautioned that this test could not be the one thing used to indicate a child’s intelligence level.

  • Against using it to label children or prescribe a permanent condition.

H.H Goddard

Work on the Scale

In 1920 translated Binet’s work into English and used a more general application of the scale. This went against Binet’s wishes to not label children from this test.

• Believed IQ was innate. Nothing can be done to change it.

  • Criminals are always going to be below normal IQ.

  • Important determinant of criminal behavior.

• Classified people as “normal,” “idiot,” or “imbecile.”

• Developed term “moron” to describe individuals who were located somewhere between “normal” and “idiot.”

  • Feeble-mindedness is inherited and can only be eliminated by denying the right to reproduce.

  • Criminal immiscible should not be held responsible for their actions.

Lewis M. Terman

Stanford-Binet Test

• In 1916 work on revising the Simon-Binet Scale.

• Like Goddard, he argued that intelligence is fixed and hereditary.

• Published the Stanford Revision of the Simon-Binet Scale of Intelligence in 1916.

  • This test, also referred to as the Stanford-Binet Test, became the standard intelligence test for the next several decades.

  • Impacted the IQ testing area.

Physiology (Segment of Biology)

Somatotype Theory

Who Came Up with It

In the 1940s, William Sheldon proposed a theory based on body build (somatotype)

Wanted to establish a link between different body types and criminality.

According to Sheldon, human body types can be classified into three broad categories: endomorphic (soft and round), mesomorphic (muscular and strong), and ectomorphic (thin and fragile).

• Argued that mesomorphs were most likely to become criminals. Positive correlation between body type and criminal activity.

Physiology (Segment of Biology)

Three Broad Categories of Human Body Types

According to Sheldon, human body types can be classified into three broad categories:

1. Endomorphic (soft and round): Relaxed, sociable, and fond of eating.

2. Mesomorphic (muscular and strong): Energetic, courageous and assertive.

3. Ectomorphic (thin and fragile): Brainy, aritistic and introverted.

Allegedly a positive correlation between body type and criminal activity.

Genetics and Criminality (Chromosomes)

In Positivism

According to the XYY chromosome theory, criminality is related to a deviant genetic makeup.

• The normal female chromosomal complement is XX; the normal male composition is XY.

• However, an XYY combination was also discovered.

  • Indicative of criminal behaviour, due to abnormal traits (tall, different mental structure and predisposed to violence).

Eugenics

Driven by the belief that social intervention should occur to protect the best gene pool (in the western world).

• Created as a direct result of biological determinism. That some humans are inherently inferior to others (primarily white).

• At some point evolution would stop, some people would not evolve as far as others.

• You could selectively screen for positive traits, while eliminate negative traits that were inherent.

• This could also be undertaken by the state through forced sterilization, and societal persuasion on the issue (Emily Murphy lecturer).

• Coined by Francis Galton - 1883 (Greek and means well born).

• Created by a misunderstanding of Darwin.

Eugenics Examples

• Forced sterilization of Indigenous peoples.

• Colonization, through the eradication of First Nations, Metis and Inuit culture.

• WW2 Hitler attempting to get rid of Jewish people.

• Apartheid in South Africa.

This is a problematic approach to dealing with crime and social status.

Psychological Positivism

Crime was seen as the result of externally caused biological problems (e.g., a war injury) or internal psychological factors (e.g., mental illness) that were treatable.

• Sigmund Freud is the figure most associated.

• Entirely believes that the criminal is made not born.

  • Offenders are sick or ill, meaning that there is a treatment.

• Criminal justice system was to understand the underlying causes of criminality and to find the appropriate treatment strategy.

• Emerged from England and doctors and psychiatrists actually working in the field.

Other Psychological Theories

(3 PPP)

• Psychoanalytic Theory: Analysis of the conscious and unconscious, and how basic emotional and developmental processes affect behaviour (the Id, Ego and Superego - Sigmund Freud).

• Personality Traits: Studies of aggression and passivity, and the psychological structure of personality as these related to behaviour.

• Psychiatric Issues: Related to childhood experiences, such as analysis that saw deprivation of universal needs during childhood as leading to the formation of certain personality patterns in later life.

Contemporary Strands of Psychological Positivism

(2 FP + FP)

Two major strands can be found in contemporary examples of psychological positivism. Different concerns are different for each group.

1. Forensic psychiatry (Applicable): Emerged from those working in the field.

   1. Concerned with culpability, how responsible an inmate or potential is for their offence, understanding the treatment that is required for their rehabilitation, engaging in probabilities to determine the likelihood of reoffending, criminal profiling, geographic profiling.

2. Forensic psychology (Academic / Theoretical): Academic, theoretical side to positivism that seeks to understand and explain phenomena more broadly related to crime (includes control theory, or biosocial).

Criminal Profiling

The process of using available information about a crime and crime scene to compose a psychological portrait of the unknown perpetrator of the crime.

• Used by practitioners (forensic psychologists).

• Can help determine what evidence is needed to find the offender and what should be included in the search warrant.

Social Control Theory

Psychological Positivism

An extension of psychodynamic theories that emanated from Sigmund Freud. Assumes that human beings are lack self control, are impulsive, and antisocial. Unstable personal relationships, less likely to feel shame or remorse.

• People lack self-control due to early childhood socialization.

  • Low self control when they lack relationships with their parents, and when their parents do not have good parenting skills (lack of supervision, poor attachment).

  • More likely to be involved in crime, when they do not develop self control in childhood.

  • Major emphasis on family relationships, provide children with the attachment necessary to restrain their involvement in delinquency.

• Thought of by Hirschi and Gottfredson who were a part of the academic community and psychological positivism.

Social Control Theory (Psychological Positivism - Academic)

The process by which individuals learn and internalize the knowledge, social skills, language, and values to conform to the roles and norms expected of them.

“Do strong bonds to family, school, and society stop people from committing crime?”

Theory that asserts that opportunity for offending is important, but only when combined with low social control, individuals who have adequate socialization skills would not succumb to criminal opportunity

• Related to Gottfredson’s and Hirschi’s control theory.

• Mention this relates to both street and white collar crime.

Biosocial Explanations

2 Variables Included

Developed by Hans Eysenck, differs from social control theory by focusing on personality types rather than social bonds, asking whether some personalities are more likely to lead to crime.

It emphasizes both nature (biological traits) and nurture (environment). It argues that individuals vary in their:

1. Ability to be conditioned

2. Quality of that conditioning: meaning some people learn rules and consequences less effectively and experience weaker guilt or fear, which can increase the likelihood of criminal behavior.

The differential Ability to be Conditioned

Biosocial Explanations

2 Variables

This refers to the way in which genetic inheritance can affect one’s ability to be conditioned.

The sensitivity of the autonomic nervous system that you have genetically inherited, can determine whether you are an extrovert or introvert. This in turn influences how well you are able to be conditioned in society.

• Associated with Hans Eysenck (1984) noted British psychologist.

The differential Quality of Conditioning

Biosocial Explanations

2 Variables

This refers to the effectiveness and efficiency of the family in using appropriate conditioning techniques.

The method of childrearing will have an impact on the child’s subsequent behaviour. How responsive the child is to punishment for consequences.

• Hans Eysenck (1984) noted British psychologist.

Medicalization

A process in which criminal behaviours are reconstructed as medical issues/problems.

• Fitzgerald, Rose, and Singh (2016) suggest incorporating biology into the study of sociology in a more meaningful way than it has been incorporated in the past; for instance, by studying the medicalization of deviance.

Contemporary Positivists Theory

3 Recent Research Examples

GBP

See a dynamic relationship between biological factors (inherited predisposition) and environmental factors (external inputs that modify behaviour).

Recent research has examined the contributions of various factors to criminal behavior which include:

1. Genetics: Explanation for things like aggressiveness, and certain types of crime.

2. Biochemical Contributions: Arousal, attention levels, brain waves, blood pressure, where the brain lights up with stimuli, prefrontal cortex development. Impulse control, rationalize.

3. Psychopharmacological Inducements: The role that substances have on criminal behavior (alcohol, drugs).

Genetic contributions

Contemporary Positivists

These studies have examined the effect of inheritance on criminal behaviour.

• Particular traits, such as intellectual defects or aggression, are seen as genetically determined and closely associated with criminal behaviour.

• Comparisons of identical and nonidentical twins and adoption studies to compare biological and nonbiological siblings are means by which one can test the influence of genetic inheritance.

Biochemical contributions

Biosocial Explanations

Contemporary Positivists

These studies look at the impact of biochemical differences on human behavioural patterns.

• Hormonal activity, metabolic processes, and the influence of toxins (such as lead poisoning) are examined in terms of various behaviours, such as aggression, and the overall propensity to commit crime.

• Psychophysiological variables, such as heart rate, blood pressure, brainwaves, arousal, and attention levels.

  • It is suggested here that different physiological processes have implications for neurotransmission and psychological impairment.

Psychopharmacological inducements

Contemporary Positivists

Examines inducements such as cocaine, alcohol, amphetamines, and so on, and their effects on human behaviour, especially criminal behaviour.

1. Some drugs increase potential to engage in high risk or violent behavior.

2. Judgement can be impaired, and non threatening behavior can be interpreted as threatening.

3. Social inhibitions may be reduced, and individuals under the influence of a substance may react in unpredictable ways.

Positivism Critique

• White collar crime not researched as much as street crime.

  • Biological determinism: Focuses on things like theft, violence and more minor crimes.

  • Classical theory: Assumes that there is a consensus of societal norms and values. No recognition of whose societal norms are the benchmark, and that norms change and evolve.

• Lack of recognition of the human transformation (over someone’s lifetime and the ability to change).

• Blurred distinction between sickness and criminality.

  • Circular reasoning: Unclear whether criminality causes impairment or impairment causes criminality.

• Reducing the complexities of human behavior to a single cause.

  • Leads to unsupported conclusions, which link certain groups to traits of criminality.

  • Neglects the social influence of crime.

Darwin Theory of Evolution

Was misappropriated to justify:

• Colonialism and imperialism.

  • Promote racist biological determinism, with impacts that are still felt today.

• Idea that certain races are inferior to others (e.g. lower IQ, traits that are undesirable).

• Justified the idea of white purity, and racist behavior.

• This was largely harmful and later unsupported theorizing.

Things Shared with Classical Theory and Positivism

1. Believe in social consensus. Therefore, they are going outside of the geometric circle through committing a crime.

2. Both believe that crime can be reduced through:

   1. Classical: Punishment and deterrence.

   2. Positivism: Treatment, rehabilitation, or management.

Indeterminate Sentences

Positivists are interested in the treatment and rehabilitation of the “flaw.”

• Believe that sentences should be indeterminate.

• This means no fixed end date.

• Currently they are used when an individual successfully uses a plea of non-guilty by way of mental illness.

• Should only keep people in treatment centres until they are better.

• Fixture of positivist perspective.

Positivist Perception of Crime Prevention

• Focus on diagnosis and classification.

• Early intervention to prevent criminality and deviance.

  • Getting treated prior to crime occurring.

  • More routine medical health screenings, psychological health screenings, access to more treatment, preventative and diagnostic tools (MRI).

  • Identify early on in children.

• Identify cause and effect relationships so that crime can be predicted.

Phrenology (Segment of Biology)

Lombroso inspired this study.

• Study that shape and size of the skull would corresponds to brain function and ability.

• Earlier studies attempted to correlate skull size and criminality.

• This was popular in the early 20th century.

  • Initial studies were looking at the brains of male criminals.

  • Big brain and skull size more sophisticated and complicated crimes.

  • Low skulls size and brain more brute violence and uncivilized criminal activities.

Negative Eugenics

In the 1920’s several provincial governments in Canada passed laws that would weed out certain characteristics.

• Acting on the idea that IQ is related to delinquency.

• Alberta passed its Sexual Sterilization Act and created a provincial eugenics board in 1928.

  • Enforced until 1972.

• BC also implemented a law and enforced it until 1973.

  • Over 5,000 people sterilized between the provinces.