AP Psychology Unit 7 - Motivation, Emotion, and Personality

Motivation

The needs, desires, feelings, and ideas that direct behavior towards a goal

Theories of Motivation

Ex. instinct theory, incentive theory, drive reduction theory, optimum arousal theory, etc.

Instinct Theory

The evolutionary perspective, we are motivated to behave in certain ways because they are evolutionary/genetically programmed to do with survival, and our survival instincts

Drive Reduction Theory

We search for balance, homeostasis, the idea that physiological arousal motivates us to satisfy our basic needs like hunger and thirst

Incentive Theory

We are “pulled” into actions by outside incentives (positive or negative), similar to operant conditioning, we want rewards or we don’t want something to happen

Optimum Arousal Theory

When we have just the right amount of excitement to get our blood pumping (adrenaline)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

We are at peak performance with the right amount of arousal, and too little or too much can negatively impact our performance

(e.g. taking drugs to be better at a sport but the drugs are too much for you and you can’t play)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Developed by Humanist, Abraham Maslow, he believed we need to achieve levels of needs in order to be our best selves, Basic needs, Safety needs, Physiological needs/Social needs, Esteem needs, and then Self-actualization (Self-transcendence was added later)

Basic Needs

First level, we need basic things for survival: food, water, shelter, homeostasis, etc. (physiological needs)

Safety Needs

We feel safe, financial security, locks on our homes, security systems

Social Needs

We need relationships, social interactions, friendships, family

Esteem Needs

We have respect and appreciation, accomplishments, prestige, worth, etc.

Self-actualization

Top of the pyramid/hierarchy, we’ve become self-aware, concerned with personal growth not what others think

Self-transcendence

This was added later and includes us reaching a spiritual level, fulfillment, and externalizing our “wisdom” to others and helping them achieve this level

Hunger Motivation

Knowing why we need to eat motivates us to eat, it is a drive

Hypothalamus

This is where the most biological feeling of hunger stems from, secretes hormones

• Lateral hypothalamus and Ventromedial hypothalamus

Lateral Hypothalamus

The “on button,” when this part of the hypothalamus is stimulated, we feel hungry

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

The “off button",” when this part of the hypothalamus is stimulated, we feel full

Hormones Related to Eating and Hunger

Ghrelin and Orexin increase hunger, Insulin, Leptin, and PYY (e.g. Ozempic assists PYY) decrease hunger

Ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted in response to an empty stomach

Orexin

A hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus

Insulin

Secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose

Leptin

A hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite & increase energy use

PYY

A digestive tract hormone; sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain

Set Point

Where your “weight thermostat” is supposedly set, and if your weight drops below a certain weight you will experience an increase in hunger, and if you weight increases, you will experience fewer cravings and more feelings of fullness, all to get your weight back to “normal”

External Cues for Eating Behaviors

Environmental factors can influence the desire to eat, e.g. time of day, senses, & culture/religious values

Eating Disorders

Bulimia Nervosa, Anorexia Nervosa, etc.

Bulimia Nervosa

Having repeated episodes of binge eating that can sometimes be accompanied with purging, purposefully throwing up

Anorexia Nervosa

When you don’t eat enough, this is the deadliest of the eating disorders

Obesity

Being very overweight, which can lead to diabetes, hypertension, and other health problems

Sexual Motivation

A normal human interest in sexual objects and activities, (not a need, more of a desire) we wouldn’t procreate if we had no sexual motivation

Alfred Kinsey

He did research on sexual motivation and published a book about how homosexuality (back when he wrote it and it was “not good”) was more common than people thought

Kinsey scale: basically a scale of how gay you are

William Masters and Virginia E. Johnson

These two did pioneering research in human sexuality, human sexual responses, and the diagnosis and treatment of sexual disorders

Achievement Motivation

The need to achieve drives us to meet goals, have accomplishments, we want feedback (connects to incentive theory)

Intrinsic Motivation

Behavior that is driven by internal rewards (autonomy, mastery, purpose)

• We simply enjoy an activity or see it as an opportunity to explore, learn, and actualize our potential

• Individuals who are intrinsically motivated are likely to perform better and improve their skills at a given task

Extrinsic Motivation

Our behavior is driven by external rewards such as fame, grades, praise, and money

Overjustification Effect

When we only do things, that we used to do for fun, only to get the rewards from it (e.g. if I know I will get cake if I draw, I will draw only to get cake not because I like drawing)

Affiliation Need

People need each other and need groups in order to survive and thrive “Social Animals” 

• It is instead centered on gaining acceptance, attention, and support from members of the group as well as providing the same attention to other members

Ostracism

Deliberately being left out of a group, rejection

Kurt Lewin

German-American pioneer in social, organizational, & applied psychology

Came up with three categories of motivational conflicts: Approach-Approach, Approach-Avoidance, and Avoidance-Avoidance

Approach-Approach Conflicts

When we have to decide between two appealing goals

Approach-Avoidance Conflicts

When we have to decide between positive and negative consequences

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts

When we have to decide between two undesirable goals

Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflicts

When we weigh the pros and cons to our options

Asexual

Having no sexual attraction to others

Testosterone

A male sex hormone that stimulates the growth of male reproductive organs and physical changes

Estrogens

Sex hormones that are higher in females and stimulate female sex characteristics

Sexual Response Cycle

Four stages of a sexual response: Excitement, Plateau, Orgasm, Resoultion

Emotion

Our mind and body’s integrated response to stimulants, arousal, behavior

Nonverbal Communication (NVC)

Facial expressions, posture, & distance, which express our emotions

Display Rule

A social group or culture’s informal norms about how to express feelings (e.g. what peace signs mean for one culture may mean something else for another culture)

Paul Ekman

He believes in universal emotional expressions, a “facial language” that everyone can recognize

Theories of Emotion

Common-sense, James-Lange, Facial Feedback, Cannon-Bard, Schachter-Singer, Zajonc/LeDoux, and Lazarus

Common-sense Theory

The theory believes a stimulus leads to an emotion, which then leads to bodily arousal through the autonomic nervous system 

• We experience some event, that leads to an emotional response, and then our bodies react (e.g. Someone gets in a car crash, then starts to cry, and finally they start to shiver or shake)

James-Lange Theory

The theory believes our emotions are caused by our body’s aroused state

• We experience an event, our body reacts, and then we experience emotion (e.g. Someone experiences a jump scare, they jump back, and then they feel scared or begin to cry)

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

This hypothesis can be backed up by the James-Lange theory because it believes facial connections can cause emotion (e.g. if we force ourselves to smile, we will feel happier)

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotions

This theory believes our physical and psychological experiences of emotion happen at the same time and that one does not cause the other (e.g. Someone experiences a surprise party and feels excited and jumps up and down at the same time)

Schachter-Singer Two Factor Theory

This theory believes the physiological arousal occurs first, and then the individual must identify the reason for this arousal to experience and label it as an emotion

• We experience a stimulus/event, then have a physiological response, and after thinking about why we are aroused, we then experience emotion

Zajonc/LeDoux Theory

This theory believes some embodied responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal

(e.g. We automatically feel startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat)

Lazarus Theory

This theory believes we have to have a cognitive appraisal (“is it dangerous or not?”)/we have to think about about a stimulus before we experience any emotions

Ex: The sound is “just the wind”

Polygraphs

Lie detector machines hooked up to a person to record changes in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and skin response

• Determine a base level of arousal and ask a set of questions that could evoke emotional feelings with physiological changes

• These machines do not accurately measure emotions, even if they do indicate arousal

Stress

Changes that cause physical, emotional, or psychological strain

• Acute and Chronic

Acute Stress

Short-term stress that can be either positive or very distressing (e.g. you are stressed about what to wear to a party [positive], or you have a test tomorrow and you haven’t studied [very stressful])

Chronic Stress

Stress that seems never-ending and inescapable

Eustress

The effect of positive events, or the optimal amount of stress that people need to promote health and well-being (creates motivation)

• Marriage, job promotion, having a baby, etc.

• Require a great deal of change in people’s habits and create stress

Distress

We feel distress when we experience unpleasant or undesired stimulus (e.g. waiting in lines, catastrophic events, life changes)

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Hans Selye explained stress is a defense mechanism and happens in three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

Alarm

When the body first reacts to a stressor and activates the sympathetic nervous system

Resistance

The body uses hormones and senses as a reaction to combat the stress (e.g. when we are in pain, norepinephrine allows us to feel less pain)

Exhaustion

When the body’s resources are used up and we calm down (the stressor may not be over, but the parasympathetic nervous system is engaged and replenishes the body’s resources) Experiencing exhaustion frequently as a result of stress can cause stress-related diseases

Stressors

Stress-causing events that come from internal or external sources at different intensities (experiencing stress frequently can cause stress-related diseases)

Coping Strategies

We have ways to deal with the stress that can be good and help long-term, or bad that only help in the moment and aren’t healthy (e.g. good = journaling, bad = drugs)

Locus of Control

Internal: When you believe you have control of your life and what happens to you, likely to work hard and become confident

External: You believe/feel others have control over your life (e.g. being in foster care, you may feel like you have no control over what happens to you)

Type A Personality

These people are ambitious and hard-working but can be hostile and have more anger, they are also more likely to have more diseases because they experience more stress (heart-related)

Type B Personality

These people are relaxed and laid-back, but can be less-driven, less competitive, and are slower to anger (therefore less likely to have diseases)

Coping Types

Emotion-focused Coping: Dealing with the emotions that are causing you stress

Problem-focused Coping: Dealing with the problem that is causing you stress

Appraisal-focused Coping →

Appraisal-focused Coping

Attempting to reframe the stressor or change you perspective on it, silve-lining

Personality Psychology

An individual’s unique pattern of thoughts and feelings

Sigmund Freud

He is considered the “father of psychoanalysis” and is considered controversial as his ideas seem right, but aren’t backed up with evidence

Psychoanalytic Theories

Freud developed the theory of personality, theory of development, and theory of human behavior, which are determined by forces we have little control over (the unconscious)

The Unconscious

A container/reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and wishes that we don’t act on/have restraint/we keep hidden

Id

Our instincts, biological urges, we want pleasure instantly and immediate gratification (impulsive)

Ego

The executive part that mediates between the id and the superego, “reality”

Superego

Represents our internalized ideals, standards for judgement, and morality (forms at ~4-5 years old)

Psychosexual Stages

Childhood stages of development (Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital)

• Includes the Oedipus complex, identification, and fixation

Free Association

A method of exploring the unconscious where the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

• “Freudian slip:” when we say the wrong thing out loud, but to Freud, it’s the truth surfacing

Interpretation of Dreams

Our dreams reveal the unconscious

• Manifest Content: what you remember from the dream (plot)

• Latent Content: The interpretation of the dream, what it symbolizes

Defense Mechanisms

A way of protecting ourselves/the ego

Repression

Acts to keep information out of conscious awareness, we “put down” or “push away” information

• Freud also thought these repressed feelings, memories, or desires come out in dreams symbolically and through slips of the tongue

Displacement

We take out our feelings on others (e.g. if someone is mad about failing a test they may snap at their friend)

Projection

Taking our own insecurities or frustrations and putting them on other people to make ourselves feel better (e.g. A woman feels insecure about her husband’s secretary and accuses her friend’s husband of cheating)

Regression

When stress is too much for someone, it can cause them to revert to childhood behavior (temper tantrums)

Denial

When you refuse to admit to something or accept something has happened (e.g. you don’t accept that you are an alcoholic)

Rationalization

When you explain or justify unacceptable behavior (e.g. a student stops studying and justifies it with believing if they study too much they will get confused)

Reaction-Formation

When we take the opposite feeling to reduce anxiety (hiding our true feelings)

Heritability

The difference among us that is due to our genetic differences (scale of 0→1) twin studies are common to support this

Neo-Freudians

Psychoanalysts who accepted Freud’s basic ideas and theories, but adapted them to be less centered on sex and violence

Carl Jung

He established rival theoretical perspective, thought all people shared a collective unconscious

Collective Unconscious

A common collection of images that we have gained together as human beings from our ancestral & evolutionary past

• Includes archetypes, personas, anima & animus, and shadows

Archetypes

Major structural components of the collective unconscious, universal patterns that structure how all humans consciously and unconsciously adapt to their world

• Evidence is found in ancient myths, dreams, and universal symbols