Studied by 20 peopleMotivation
The needs, desires, feelings, and ideas that direct behavior towards a goal
Theories of Motivation
Ex. instinct theory, incentive theory, drive reduction theory, optimum arousal theory, etc.
Instinct Theory
The evolutionary perspective, we are motivated to behave in certain ways because they are evolutionary/genetically programmed to do with survival, and our survival instincts
Drive Reduction Theory
We search for balance, homeostasis, the idea that physiological arousal motivates us to satisfy our basic needs like hunger and thirst
Incentive Theory
We are “pulled” into actions by outside incentives (positive or negative), similar to operant conditioning, we want rewards or we don’t want something to happen
Optimum Arousal Theory
When we have just the right amount of excitement to get our blood pumping (adrenaline)
Yerkes-Dodson Law
We are at peak performance with the right amount of arousal, and too little or too much can negatively impact our performance
(e.g. taking drugs to be better at a sport but the drugs are too much for you and you can’t play)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Developed by Humanist, Abraham Maslow, he believed we need to achieve levels of needs in order to be our best selves, Basic needs, Safety needs, Physiological needs/Social needs, Esteem needs, and then Self-actualization (Self-transcendence was added later)
Basic Needs
First level, we need basic things for survival: food, water, shelter, homeostasis, etc. (physiological needs)
Safety Needs
We feel safe, financial security, locks on our homes, security systems
Social Needs
We need relationships, social interactions, friendships, family
Esteem Needs
We have respect and appreciation, accomplishments, prestige, worth, etc.
Self-actualization
Top of the pyramid/hierarchy, we’ve become self-aware, concerned with personal growth not what others think
Self-transcendence
This was added later and includes us reaching a spiritual level, fulfillment, and externalizing our “wisdom” to others and helping them achieve this level
Hunger Motivation
Knowing why we need to eat motivates us to eat, it is a drive
Hypothalamus
This is where the most biological feeling of hunger stems from, secretes hormones
Lateral hypothalamus and Ventromedial hypothalamus
Lateral Hypothalamus
The “on button,” when this part of the hypothalamus is stimulated, we feel hungry
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
The “off button",” when this part of the hypothalamus is stimulated, we feel full
Hormones Related to Eating and Hunger
Ghrelin and Orexin increase hunger, Insulin, Leptin, and PYY (e.g. Ozempic assists PYY) decrease hunger
Ghrelin
A hunger-arousing hormone secreted in response to an empty stomach
Orexin
A hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus
Insulin
Secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose
Leptin
A hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite & increase energy use
PYY
A digestive tract hormone; sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain
Set Point
Where your “weight thermostat” is supposedly set, and if your weight drops below a certain weight you will experience an increase in hunger, and if you weight increases, you will experience fewer cravings and more feelings of fullness, all to get your weight back to “normal”
External Cues for Eating Behaviors
Environmental factors can influence the desire to eat, e.g. time of day, senses, & culture/religious values
Eating Disorders
Bulimia Nervosa, Anorexia Nervosa, etc.
Bulimia Nervosa
Having repeated episodes of binge eating that can sometimes be accompanied with purging, purposefully throwing up
Anorexia Nervosa
When you don’t eat enough, this is the deadliest of the eating disorders
Obesity
Being very overweight, which can lead to diabetes, hypertension, and other health problems
Sexual Motivation
A normal human interest in sexual objects and activities, (not a need, more of a desire) we wouldn’t procreate if we had no sexual motivation
Alfred Kinsey
He did research on sexual motivation and published a book about how homosexuality (back when he wrote it and it was “not good”) was more common than people thought
Kinsey scale: basically a scale of how gay you are
William Masters and Virginia E. Johnson
These two did pioneering research in human sexuality, human sexual responses, and the diagnosis and treatment of sexual disorders
Achievement Motivation
The need to achieve drives us to meet goals, have accomplishments, we want feedback (connects to incentive theory)
Intrinsic Motivation
Behavior that is driven by internal rewards (autonomy, mastery, purpose)
We simply enjoy an activity or see it as an opportunity to explore, learn, and actualize our potential
Individuals who are intrinsically motivated are likely to perform better and improve their skills at a given task
Extrinsic Motivation
Our behavior is driven by external rewards such as fame, grades, praise, and money
Overjustification Effect
When we only do things, that we used to do for fun, only to get the rewards from it (e.g. if I know I will get cake if I draw, I will draw only to get cake not because I like drawing)
Affiliation Need
People need each other and need groups in order to survive and thrive “Social Animals”Â
It is instead centered on gaining acceptance, attention, and support from members of the group as well as providing the same attention to other members
Ostracism
Deliberately being left out of a group, rejection
Kurt Lewin
German-American pioneer in social, organizational, & applied psychology
Came up with three categories of motivational conflicts: Approach-Approach, Approach-Avoidance, and Avoidance-Avoidance
Approach-Approach Conflicts
When we have to decide between two appealing goals
Approach-Avoidance Conflicts
When we have to decide between positive and negative consequences
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts
When we have to decide between two undesirable goals
Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflicts
When we weigh the pros and cons to our options
Asexual
Having no sexual attraction to others
Testosterone
A male sex hormone that stimulates the growth of male reproductive organs and physical changes
Estrogens
Sex hormones that are higher in females and stimulate female sex characteristics
Sexual Response Cycle
Four stages of a sexual response: Excitement, Plateau, Orgasm, Resoultion
Emotion
Our mind and body’s integrated response to stimulants, arousal, behavior
Nonverbal Communication (NVC)
Facial expressions, posture, & distance, which express our emotions
Display Rule
A social group or culture’s informal norms about how to express feelings (e.g. what peace signs mean for one culture may mean something else for another culture)
Paul Ekman
He believes in universal emotional expressions, a “facial language” that everyone can recognize
Theories of Emotion
Common-sense, James-Lange, Facial Feedback, Cannon-Bard, Schachter-Singer, Zajonc/LeDoux, and Lazarus
Common-sense Theory
The theory believes a stimulus leads to an emotion, which then leads to bodily arousal through the autonomic nervous systemÂ
We experience some event, that leads to an emotional response, and then our bodies react (e.g. Someone gets in a car crash, then starts to cry, and finally they start to shiver or shake)
James-Lange Theory
The theory believes our emotions are caused by our body’s aroused state
We experience an event, our body reacts, and then we experience emotion (e.g. Someone experiences a jump scare, they jump back, and then they feel scared or begin to cry)
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
This hypothesis can be backed up by the James-Lange theory because it believes facial connections can cause emotion (e.g. if we force ourselves to smile, we will feel happier)
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotions
This theory believes our physical and psychological experiences of emotion happen at the same time and that one does not cause the other (e.g. Someone experiences a surprise party and feels excited and jumps up and down at the same time)
Schachter-Singer Two Factor Theory
This theory believes the physiological arousal occurs first, and then the individual must identify the reason for this arousal to experience and label it as an emotion
We experience a stimulus/event, then have a physiological response, and after thinking about why we are aroused, we then experience emotion
Zajonc/LeDoux Theory
This theory believes some embodied responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal
(e.g. We automatically feel startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat)
Lazarus Theory
This theory believes we have to have a cognitive appraisal (“is it dangerous or not?”)/we have to think about about a stimulus before we experience any emotions
Ex: The sound is “just the wind”
Polygraphs
Lie detector machines hooked up to a person to record changes in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and skin response
Determine a base level of arousal and ask a set of questions that could evoke emotional feelings with physiological changes
These machines do not accurately measure emotions, even if they do indicate arousal
Stress
Changes that cause physical, emotional, or psychological strain
Acute and Chronic
Acute Stress
Short-term stress that can be either positive or very distressing (e.g. you are stressed about what to wear to a party [positive], or you have a test tomorrow and you haven’t studied [very stressful])
Chronic Stress
Stress that seems never-ending and inescapable
Eustress
The effect of positive events, or the optimal amount of stress that people need to promote health and well-being (creates motivation)
Marriage, job promotion, having a baby, etc.
Require a great deal of change in people’s habits and create stress
Distress
We feel distress when we experience unpleasant or undesired stimulus (e.g. waiting in lines, catastrophic events, life changes)
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Hans Selye explained stress is a defense mechanism and happens in three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
Alarm
When the body first reacts to a stressor and activates the sympathetic nervous system
Resistance
The body uses hormones and senses as a reaction to combat the stress (e.g. when we are in pain, norepinephrine allows us to feel less pain)
Exhaustion
When the body’s resources are used up and we calm down (the stressor may not be over, but the parasympathetic nervous system is engaged and replenishes the body’s resources) Experiencing exhaustion frequently as a result of stress can cause stress-related diseases
Stressors
Stress-causing events that come from internal or external sources at different intensities (experiencing stress frequently can cause stress-related diseases)
Coping Strategies
We have ways to deal with the stress that can be good and help long-term, or bad that only help in the moment and aren’t healthy (e.g. good = journaling, bad = drugs)
Locus of Control
Internal: When you believe you have control of your life and what happens to you, likely to work hard and become confident
External: You believe/feel others have control over your life (e.g. being in foster care, you may feel like you have no control over what happens to you)
Type A Personality
These people are ambitious and hard-working but can be hostile and have more anger, they are also more likely to have more diseases because they experience more stress (heart-related)
Type B Personality
These people are relaxed and laid-back, but can be less-driven, less competitive, and are slower to anger (therefore less likely to have diseases)
Coping Types
Emotion-focused Coping: Dealing with the emotions that are causing you stress
Problem-focused Coping: Dealing with the problem that is causing you stress
Appraisal-focused Coping →
Appraisal-focused Coping
Attempting to reframe the stressor or change you perspective on it, silve-lining
Personality Psychology
An individual’s unique pattern of thoughts and feelings
Sigmund Freud
He is considered the “father of psychoanalysis” and is considered controversial as his ideas seem right, but aren’t backed up with evidence
Psychoanalytic Theories
Freud developed the theory of personality, theory of development, and theory of human behavior, which are determined by forces we have little control over (the unconscious)
The Unconscious
A container/reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and wishes that we don’t act on/have restraint/we keep hidden
Id
Our instincts, biological urges, we want pleasure instantly and immediate gratification (impulsive)
Ego
The executive part that mediates between the id and the superego, “reality”
Superego
Represents our internalized ideals, standards for judgement, and morality (forms at ~4-5 years old)
Psychosexual Stages
Childhood stages of development (Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital)
Includes the Oedipus complex, identification, and fixation
Free Association
A method of exploring the unconscious where the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
“Freudian slip:” when we say the wrong thing out loud, but to Freud, it’s the truth surfacing
Interpretation of Dreams
Our dreams reveal the unconscious
Manifest Content: what you remember from the dream (plot)
Latent Content: The interpretation of the dream, what it symbolizes
Defense Mechanisms
A way of protecting ourselves/the ego
Repression
Acts to keep information out of conscious awareness, we “put down” or “push away” information
Freud also thought these repressed feelings, memories, or desires come out in dreams symbolically and through slips of the tongue
Displacement
We take out our feelings on others (e.g. if someone is mad about failing a test they may snap at their friend)
Projection
Taking our own insecurities or frustrations and putting them on other people to make ourselves feel better (e.g. A woman feels insecure about her husband’s secretary and accuses her friend’s husband of cheating)
Regression
When stress is too much for someone, it can cause them to revert to childhood behavior (temper tantrums)
Denial
When you refuse to admit to something or accept something has happened (e.g. you don’t accept that you are an alcoholic)
Rationalization
When you explain or justify unacceptable behavior (e.g. a student stops studying and justifies it with believing if they study too much they will get confused)
Reaction-Formation
When we take the opposite feeling to reduce anxiety (hiding our true feelings)
Heritability
The difference among us that is due to our genetic differences (scale of 0→1) twin studies are common to support this
Neo-Freudians
Psychoanalysts who accepted Freud’s basic ideas and theories, but adapted them to be less centered on sex and violence
Carl Jung
He established rival theoretical perspective, thought all people shared a collective unconscious
Collective Unconscious
A common collection of images that we have gained together as human beings from our ancestral & evolutionary past
Includes archetypes, personas, anima & animus, and shadows
Archetypes
Major structural components of the collective unconscious, universal patterns that structure how all humans consciously and unconsciously adapt to their world
Evidence is found in ancient myths, dreams, and universal symbols
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