AP REVIEW: Learning

Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning

Learning to associate a new, neutral stimulus with an established stimulus that produces a reflexive, involuntary response, resulting in you responding to thee new stimulus in the same way as the old one.

Simulus

A visual or auditory cue that triggers a specific response or behavior in an organism, often used in conditioning experiments to study learning and memory.

Response

A reaction to a stimulus

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially does not elicit a response. Through association with a conditioned stimulus, it can become a conditioned stimulus itself.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS/US)

Stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning. Initiates an involuntary reaction. Example: food causing salivation.

Conditoned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

Unconditioned response (UCR/UR)

Automatic, unlearned reaction to a stimulus. It occurs naturally without prior conditioning.

Conditioned response

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. It is developed through association with an unconditioned stimulus.

Aversive conditioning

A type of learning in which an organism learns to associate an unpleasant stimulus with a particular behavior.

• This type of conditioning works by creating an association between the behavior and some sort of punishment or discomfort, so that the organism will be less likely to do it again.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest, without further conditioning.

Generalization

When a response learned in one situation occurs in a similar situation. It involves applying learned behaviors to new but similar stimuli. - When stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR without any training.

Discrimination

In classical conditioning, the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli, leading to a specific response. - Occurs when only the CS produces the CR.

Higher-order conditioning

Involves pairing a neutral stimulus with a conditioned stimulus to create a new conditioned response. Also called second-order or secondary conditioning, occurs when a well-learned conditioned stimulus is paired with an neutral stimulus to produce a conditioned response to the neutral stimulus.

• In this conditioning, the old conditioned stimulus acts as a unconditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

A learning process where behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on consequences. Involves reinforcement and punishment.

Instrumental learning

A type of learning where behavior is modified through reinforcement or punishment, leading to the acquisition of new behaviors.

Law of effect

States that behaviors followed by satisfying or positive consequences are strengthened (more likely to occur), while behaviors followed by annoying or negative consequences are weakened (less likely to occur).

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated in the future.

Negative reinforcement

The encouragement of certain behaviors by removing or avoiding a negative outcome or stimuli

Positive punishment

A method in operant conditioning where an undesired behavior is decreased by adding an unpleasant stimulus after the behavior occurs.

Negative punishment

Involves removing a desirable stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

Omission training

A behavioral training method where reinforcement is provided for correct responses while incorrect responses are ignored or not reinforced.

Avoidance behavior

A coping mechanism where an individual avoids situations or stimuli that trigger anxiety, fear, or discomfort to reduce negative emotions. - A response that prevents an aversion stimulus from occuring

Primary reinforcer

A stimulus that is inherently rewarding, such as food, water, or sleep, that does not require learning to be considered valuable.

Secondary reinforcer

A type of reinforcer that gains value through association with primary reinforcers. It includes money, praise, and tokens.

Generalized reinforcer

A type of reinforcer that can be exchanged for a variety of other reinforcers because it has been associated with a wide range of primary and secondary reinforcers. Ex. Money

Token economy

A behavior modification technique using tokens as rewards for desired behaviors, which can be exchanged for privileges or goods.

Shaping

Positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior, is an effective way of teaching a new behavior.

Chaining

Used to establish a specific sequence of behaviors by initially positively reinforcing each behavior in a desired sequence and then later rewarding only the completed sequence.

Continuous reinforcement

A schedule in operant conditioning where every desired behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.

Partial reinforcement

Variable schedule of reinforcement where behavior is reinforced intermittently (irregularly), leading to slower extinction but higher resistance to extinction compared to continuous reinforcement.

Interval schedules

A type of reinforcement schedule where reinforcement is provided after a certain amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement, regardless of the number of responses.

Fixed ratio

The number of times an action must be done in order to receive an award. Fixed = secure/regular Ratio = Number

Fixed interval

A schedule in operant conditioning where reinforcement is delivered at consistent time intervals, regardless of behavior frequency. Fixed = secure/regular Interval = time

Variable ratio

A reinforcement schedule where a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. Known for high resistance to extinction. Variable = not consistent Ratio = Number

Variable interval

A reinforcement schedule where a response is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. It leads to a steady rate of responding. Variable = not consistent Ratio = number

The Contiguity Model

A theory that suggests learning occurs when two events happen close together in time, leading to a conditioned response.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not immediately demonstrated in behavior. - Absence of rewards

Insight

A sudden and clear understanding of a complex situation or problem, often leading to a solution or new perspective. - The sudden appearance of an answer to a problem.

Social learning

Theory by Bandura where individuals learn through observing others' behaviors and the consequences of those actions.

Modeling

Learning by observing and imitating others' behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions. It involves attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Mirror neurons

Brain cells that activate both when an individual performs an action and when they observe the same action performed by someone else.

Conditioned taste aversion

An intense dislike and avoidance of a food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning.

Instinctive drift

The tendency of animals to revert to innate behaviors, interfering with conditioned responses. - A conditioned response that drifts back toward the natural (instinctive) behavior of the organism.

Preparedness

A concept in psychology suggesting that humans and animals are predisposed to learn and respond to certain stimuli due to evolutionary factors. And that behaviors contrary to an animal’s natural tendencies are learned slowly or not at all.