Geography - Health, Human Rights and Intervention

A-level Edexcel Geography Human

development

change for the better

eurocentric view of development

economic development leading to a greater quality of life (BUT developing countries today are prioritising social development)

GDP

total value of all goods and services produced within a nations borders over a specific period

advantages of GDP (x3)

1. easy to compare to evaluate size of economies

2. standardised across countries (+ all countries do it)

3. often ‘per capita’ so can compare wellbeing’s

disadvantages of GDP (x3)

1. doesn’t reflect distribution of money

2. doesn’t measure quality of life as no social/environmental factors considers

3. excludes the informal economy (so not representative of LICs)

HDI factors

1. life expectancy at birth

2. average years of schooling

3. GDP per capita

4. literacy rates

advantages of HDI (x3)

1. composite (economic, social and health indicator)

2. allows for easy comparison as produces a score 0.0 - 0.1

3. all countries use it

disadvantages of HDI (x3)

1. doesn’t account for inequality

2. oversimplified e.g. no environmental aspects

3. not comprehensive

Happy Planet Index

how well a country achieves long, happy and sustainable lives for their citizens

1. environmental = ecological footprint

2. social = wellbeing

3. health = life expectancy

E.G. highest = Costa Rica = 64, medium = UK = 47.9, low = USA = 32.1

advantages of HPI (x3)

1. more holistic as includes social and environmental aspects

2. encourages sustainable development

3. easy global comparisons

disadvantages of HPI (x3)

1. subjective measurement of wellbeing

2. estimates with ecological footprints

3. can be misleading for some developed countries if ecologically bad e.g. Switzerland

Social Progress Index

focus on social and environmental aspects using 53 indicators and produces a score 1-100

1. basic human needs

2. wellbeing (inc. education etc.)

3. opportunity

advantages of SPI (x3)

1. holistic as multiple indicators

2. identifies gaps in development

3. looks at opportunities (inc. future)

disadvantages of SPI (x3)

1. complex and subjective

2. doesn’t account for regional differences

3. overlooks economic factors

Gender Inequality Index (GII)

focuses on inequalities between women’s and men’s opportunities and outcomes in (1) reproductive health, (2) empowerment and (3) economic participation

advantages of GII (x3)

1. holistic measure of inequality

2. supports social development

3. encourages social progression

disadvantages of GII (x2)

1. relies on availability of data

2. doesn’t take into account qualitative aspects

why is the relationship between income and life satisfaction complex (x6)

1. life satisfaction increases rapidly with wealth when incomes are low to begin with and only up to a medium level of income

2. some people are more satisfied than income would suggest e.g. Mexico = 78% life satisfaction vs 43% in Japan

3. economic growth exploits natural resources which negatively impacts environmental quality

4. GDP can be skewed by income distribution

5. informal economy not included so not fully representative for LICs

6. countries with similar GDP may vary in life expectancy

Rosling ideas (x3)

1. future goals should be to improve environmental quality, health and life expectancy of the poorest and human rights

2. believed economic growth was the most important way of achieving this as it is needed to build infrastructure, raise incomes to pay for health and education and develop journalism

3. improving health, life expectancy and environmental quality unlocks economic potential

South Korea development (x3)

• invested in healthcare and education in order to improve economically

• produced an educated and skilled workforce as the process of industrialisation requires technologically proficient individuals

• low dependency ratio = 37% showing large working population

UK development (x3)

• prioritised economic development as industrialisation and mass production led to significant boosts in output

• maintained its global importance/colonial nature

• then allowed for the government to implement social reforms

Afghanistan development (x4)

• Sharia Law = government laws based upon religious ones

• creates a code of conduct incompatible without perceptions of human rights as perpetuates gender inequality

• limits development as less change occurs e.g. role of women denies their fundamental rights

• social development is slower E.G. converting from Islam is punishable by death

Bolivia development (x4)

• under Evo Morales = focused on social and environmental welfare as resources are classified as ‘blessings from nature’

• requires MAJOR economic change as previously reliant on mining exports

• taxes have been raised on profits of oil TNCs to over 80% and the extra government income is used to reduce poverty through health, education and other programmes including increasing minimum wage by 50%

• has lifted 500,000 Bolivians from poverty, with extreme poverty falling by 43%

India development (x4)

• national and regional governments subsidise the cost of housing, food, fuel, fertilisers and water

• makes them effectively cheaper and more affordable for those on a low income

• costs about $60 billion annually

• prioritising social welfare

why is education important for economic development (x5)

• produces a demographic dividend (0-15 age group now will be the workers of the next generation so must be educated)

• E.G. Pakistan = 1/3 population aged 0-14

• cheap mass labour can attract TNCs and FDI, especially if low ‘unionised’ so legal limits are more flexible

• educated labour force can be utilised for new industry e.g. tech

• 60 million children of primary school age don’t have access to basic education due to cost, illness, accessibility and lack of provision

why is education important for developing a need for basic hygiene and healthcare (x2)

• E.G. Cuba = ‘consultarios’ 3x a year with one having to be in the home

• development of preventative measures to health issues

why is education important for improvements in “democracy” (x3)

• increases the role of women e.g. Rwanda = has most women in government

• more people know their human rights E.G. China are restricted due to Facebook and Youtube bans etc.

• legal system changes e.g. more than ½ of world’s countries still have capital punishment

patterns of global life expectancy

• world population explosion since 1960, mainly due to increases in devloping countries (especially in Asia + Africa) = growth of 4 billion in 50 years

• 805 of the worlds population live in developing countries (by 2050, 9.5 billion population)

• places a huge pressure upon resources such as land, water, food, living space and infrastructure = more poverty, slums, overcrowding etc.

• pin codes of the earths = 1 1 4 5 with majority of Africa being under 20

how does education levels affect life expectancy

higher incomes mean better health and living conditions, decreasing communicable diseases e.g. diarrhoea, influenza etc.

how does type of housing affect life expectancy

increased living in slums due to urbanisation reduces life expectancy e.g. through lack of freshwater, sanitation and increased overcrowding

how does funding/provision of healthcare affect life expectancy

tax/insurance and structure of healthcare

E.G. Cuba = ‘consultarios’ = preventative healthcare = increases life expectancy

varying availability, cost and effectiveness of medical care has specific internal differences in health e.g. UK fund through tax for NHS

how do natural hazards affect life expectancy

E.G. the Phillippines is a multiple hazard zone, meaning a greater chance of death in these areas

how does political instability affect life expectancy

civil war/destruction/displacement of human capital and decreased FDI as decreased investment decreases life expectancy

how does economic structure affect life expectancy

higher reliance on the primary/secondary sector usually equates to lower life expectancy as nature of work is more physical etc.

presentation rates to doctors are lower for low-income workers as view earning money as more important

how does level of development affect life expectancy

differences in political agendas e.g. India is less developed than UK which is seen in the problems they face

UK = austerity and income inequality affects life expectancies in same areas e.g. Kensington and Chelsea = 16 years between richest and poorest

INDIA = not yet reached development level where incomes are high enough to be distributed unequally so greater problems with sanitation, safe water etc. e.g. 1.8 billion still drinking contaminated water

how does health affect life expectancy (x5)

• diseases reduce the ability to work and is higher in developing countries

• childhood diseases can lead to stunting and poor cognitive development = decreased education

• family members may have to look after ill relatives

• quality of water supply e.g. diarrhoea, dehydration etc. e.g. DRC = water supply for 47.6% of population is ‘unimproved’

• food security e.g. DRC = most live in a state of moderate to severe food insecurity + 40% of those under 5 = chronic malnutrition

ATSI people health indicators (x5)

1. life expectancy = 10 years younger than average Australians

2. 7x greater chance of kidney diseases

3. 1.5x higher chance of obesity and cancer

4. 6x suicide and 23% of disease is mental

5. infant mortality = 5x higher

“Stolen Generation”

countless ATSI children were forcibly removed from families under government policy (1 in 10 removed) in order to try integrate them more into society and to reduce “neglect” and stereotypical viewpoints

human rights issue of ATSI children (x4)

• discrimination against e.g. weren’t included in the census until 1971

• not equal access to services e.g. 20% of compulsory school age ATSI children not enrolled

• no representation/voice so not appreciated/represented

• ATSI Voice referendum was rejected by the public in 2023 showing a rejection of indigenous recognition

how have Australia promoted equal rights? (x4)

1. Australia Human Rights Commission promotes the prevention of racial discrimination

2. reconciliation e.g. giving land back

3. Australia law now protects ATSI people

4. might not always be effective as harder in rural areas (people may not have come across ATSI people but only experienced propaganda)

social progress

the idea that societies can improve over time in economic, human and environmental terms

economic development in social progress

a shift in primary and secondary sector employment to tertiary and quaternary sectors through infrastructure spending e.g. roads, railways, tax breaks to attract FDI

human development in social progress

through spending on education, healthcare and benefits for disadvantaged groups (promoting freedom and equality) E.G. France = 11.5% of GDP vs 2.8% in Bangladesh

environmental development in social progress

through reducing pollution, ensuring clean water and sanitation and protecting ecosystems and species

kuznets curve

most economic development leads to environmental decline in the short-term as requires growth in the secondary and tertiary sectors (resource heavy and requires construction of infrastructure/mining/deforestation etc.) BUT over the long term, it facilitates a focus on the environment

example of kuzents curve

CHINA

1. built hundreds of power stations for economic development

2. now has the most solar panels and wind turbines in the world

social progress index

produces a score out of 100 surrounding these aspects:

1. basic human needs = nutrition, medical care, shelter, water, sanitation and safety

2. foundations of wellbeing = education, access to internet and mobile phones, life expectancy and pollution levels

3. opportunity = personal rights, political freedom, gender equality, tolerance of immigrants and access to advanced education

examples of social progress index (x3)

1. HICs - USA = 81.70/100 (40th) as underperforming in basic needs, safety and foundations of wellbeing

2. NEEs - Nigeria = 46.97/100 (157th) as underperforming in basic needs and specifically health and medical care

3. LICs - Afghanistan = 32.15/100 (170th) as underperforming in opportunity including rights and voice + freedom and equality

how do welfare states affect social progress (+ example)

form of government in which the state protects and promotes the economic and social wellbeing of its citizens with a democratic format

E.G. UK = provides for those unemployed or disadvantaged and employs policies aimed at social provision and improving QoL

how do totalitarian regimes affect social progress (+ example)

those that focus on political and military enforcement through gaining wealth by streamlining services and being efficient (full control by government)

E.G. North Korea = the government/elite have full control over decisions so low levels of spending on healthcare and education

how does communism affect social progress (+ example)

a system whereby all property is owned by the community and each person contributes and receives according to their ability and needs

E.G. Russia = shown to have problems in social progress across all categories, suggesting inequality

Cuba case study surrounding social progress

has one of the lowest GDP globally but health indicators are as good as HIC and European countries with life expectancy in line with USA

• ‘consultarios’ = preventative healthcare which includes a house visit to ensure everyday living quality is high

• 1 doctor per 600 people and all doctors must do 3 years of GP services

• low child mortality as doctors visit once every 2 weeks until 6 months

• poly clinics = prevent hospitalisation unless necessary e.g. minor surgery, physiotherapy etc. is free

• medical schools are free

• nature of communist government makes enforcement easier as written into law

case study of France (x6)

• healthcare is state funded and of a high quality

• government spending is 56% of GDP

• government welfare and pension payments are high

• education spending is high = £8500 per student per year in 2015

• 4th highest spending on healthcare as a % of GDP in the G20

• French residents pay top up insurance of about £150 per family per month

Saudi Arabia case study (x5)

• healthcare predominately state funded and of a high standard

• 29.6% overall government spending on healthcare

• 97% of export earnings come from oil production which is largely owned by the royal elite

• pensions are low (£300 a month) and unemployment pay is £400 a month (only 1/3 working in 2015 of those at a working age)

• education spending is low with poorly trained teachers and focused around religious teaching

role of world bank in development (x4)

1. reduce poverty by lending money to the governments of its poorer members

2. helps countries implement reforms or projects including construction of infrastructure, provision of water and electricity and fighting disease

3. gets money from HICs and inests into LICs

4. Global Partnership for Education→ supports 65+ developing nations to improve education so 77 million more children in schools

role of IMF in development (x4)

1. HIPC scheme = clears debt of highly indebted countries as often due to trade traps of neo-colonial powers

2. SAPs → nations able to get loans if they accept certain conditions e.g. privatisation of Nigeria water to Biwater (increasing investment in infrastructure)

3. restructuring economies can be impacted by global crashes in the economy

4. promote neo-liberal policy reforms (based on lowering tax and privatisation)

role of WTO in development (x5)

1. promotes free trade through the process of globalisation (relies on oil so huge environmental issues)

2. main issue is trade agreements and trade blocs as linked to trade wars

3. discourages movement of protected plant/animal species

4. advisory organisation with no enforcement

5. run by large countries yet free trade likely to negatively impact large countries so how effective is it?

role of UNESCO in development (x3)

1. focuses on education + science + culture (promoting universities and companies sharing information and ideas)

2. setting up the platform for economic growth

3. aims focus on respecting law and promoting human rights, so promoting inclusivity rather than liberalisation

United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

in 2000,189 nations came together and made a promise for 8 specific goals by 2015 e.g. eradicate extreme poverty, achieve universal primary education, promote gender equality

progress of MDGs (x7)

1. world poverty rates halved but 1 in 8 still go hungry

2. women still hold less secure jobs than men but primary education did increase

3. 17,000 less children die each day

4. 2.5 billion people still don’t have basic sanitation despite ¼ of the global population having improved sanitation

5. aid money = £134.8 billion in 2023 BUT poorest countries achieve these goals the least

6. inequality as growth and development dependent on resources, leading to environmental degradation that impacts the poor more

7. targeted efforts don’t reach the most vulnerable people e.g. many Sub-Saharan African nations have not progressed yet China = 500 million of fall in extreme poverty

Bangladesh MDGs

on track for all targets and met goal of ratio of boys:girls in primary education early

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

extended the MDGs to 17 goals with a higher focus on sustainability, focusing on NEEs as they are contributing to climate change now

e.g. protection of marine life, increase in sustainable cities etc.

progress of SDGs (x4)

1. not forecasted to be met until 2082

2. 17% of targets are on track

3. over 1/3 of the targets are regressing

4. limits include COVID, conflict, climate change, global refugee crisis, growth of protectionism

evaluation of SDGs (x6)

• difficult to evaluate as over 200 targets meaning hundreds of indicators

• judging if every country meets the general targets (SPI = 75) so NOT trying to make every country equal

• some nations haven’t changed e.g. China, India yet figure is driven by some HICs

• GDP not solution to SDGs as requires a change in ideology

• tracking the SDGs is essential to hold governments accountable and not legally binding

• incredibly difficult to achieve as must change everything

why have human rights become a global issue (x7)

1. changing religious beliefs e.g. Sharia Law

2. 1833 = end of slavery in the UK

3. children used to be able to work in factories

4. colonial times didn’t protect human rights (so end of Imperial era = more recognition)

5. wars made human rights fall

6. celebrities cause more awareness and a gain in public support e.g. Suffraggetes, Mother Theresa

7. globalisation of democracy at the end of WW2 + colonial era

human rights

shared principles or values that set standards for behaviour either nationally or internationally

evaluation of human rights (x3)

1. different ideologies changed them (cultures may take different views on gender equality or treat crimes differently, meaning enforcement differs)

2. role of religion

3. sovereignty = handing authority on human right issues to a higher legal body E.G. Abu Qatada (hate preacher in UK) → ECHR stopped extradition due to “fair trial”

UDHR

statement of intent and framework for foreign policy statements to explain economic or military intervention

why did some nations not sign UDHR (x

1. Soviet Union → did not condemn Fascism + Nazism

2. South Africa → protect its system of apartheid

3. Saudi Arabia → states ‘everyone has the right to change religion or beliefs’

role of UDHR (x3)

1. places political pressure on countries denying basic human rights

2. justifies economic sanctions against countries

3. justifies military intervention in countries committing genocide or widespread human rights abuses

ECHR

helps prevent conflict in Europe (+ integrated into the UK Human Rights Act in 1998, making human rights part of UK law)

47 member states aiming to uphold human rights, democracy and rule of law

Geneva Convention

basis of international law for prosecuting individuals and organisations who commit war crimes

endorsed by 196 countries and those convicted can be trialled at the International Criminal Court (ICC)

examples of laws in Geneva Convention (x4)

1. wounded soldiers should be evacuated and given medical treatment by the enemy side

2. prisoners should be well treated (not used for forced labour and no hostages)

3. civilians should be protected in areas that have been conquered

4. cannot commit war crimes e.g. torture, rape, genocide etc.

difficulties of Geneva Convention (x4)

1. international cooperation to bring, capture and gather evidence of war criminals is hard

2. since 2002 = accused 42 individuals yet only 5 were convicted

3. widespread but not universal e.g. not signed by USA, China, Russia etc.

4. many sovereign states still engage in banned activities e.g. 25 = chemical weapons, over 150 = torture

trends in Human Rights Index (x4)

1. generally has improved as they have become more protected and well known BUT a very slow process as requires a change in ideology of governments

2. short term declines exist e.g. world wars

3. British colonies develop earlier/can collect data on human rights, especially as democracy spread during the end of colonialism

4. no where in the world will enforce human rights effectively for everyone e.g. minority recoups may still feel impinged even if general positive score (E.G. ATSI group in Australia)

how does political violence affect human rights between and within countries (x4 examples)

1. MYANMAR = COUP 2021 → military ramped up violence against Rohingya people as 3 million displaced and thousands died

2. CHINA = uprise of protests in Tianenman Square in 1989 = censorship and surveillance nowadays + modern persecution of Uyghurs in Xinjang province as Muslims forcibly detained

3. IRAN = still engage in death penalty even for non-violent crimes + systematic discrimination

4. SAUDI ARABIA = male guardianship system which limits women’s ability to work, travel + choose marriage

democratic governments affecting human rights

tends to reflect the population e.g. ethnicity, multi-cultural, mix of gender as voted for → open, representative, fair, rule by law and promote freedom of speech + religion

authoritarian governments affecting human rights

citizens have no voice in how they are ruled (often civil war so military rule) → do not allow freedom of speech, press and religion and do not protect minority groups e.g. censorship, persecution

how does level of development affect human rights (x5)

• some economic growth policies may suppress political freedoms, limit freedom of expression or curtail labour rights

• some industries can lead to exploitation of workers, including poor working conditions, child labour and inadequat3e pay

• may result in environmental harm

• prioritise short-term gains over long-term protection of human rights e.g. displacement

• E.G. Kafala system of taking passports during World Cup construction

Eretria discrimination

only country globally to limit women’s rights to vote

India discrimination

largest democracy in the world yet only 15% are women representatives

LGBTQ+ discrimination (x2)

• 39 countries in the world allow same-sex marriage but not even consistency in the states of the US

• e.g. Qatar + Saudi Arabia with FIFA World Cup got backlash from homosexual individuals as not permitted there (can be death penalty in some areas)

Sudan discrimination (x2)

the Dafar genocide

• more than 1 million children have been “killed, raped, wounded, displaced, traumatised or endured the loss of parents of families” of Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa tribes

• government paid the Janjaweed to carry out attacks on the villages (heavily controlled army)

Pakistan discrimination

progress in gender equality extremely slow as child marriage common, 470 honour killings of women in the last year and literacy rate is 45% for women and 70% for men

Afghanistan discrimination

Taliban follow Sharia Law to an extreme meaning discrimination against women as they can’t attend school, go out alone, be employed etc.

87% illiterate and 1/10 chance of death at childbirth

political corruption

those in power prioritise their own personal gain over public interest (rule of law can be subverted)

more likely to be authoritarian governments as more likely to have gained their power against public approval e.g. nepotism, and therefore, more likely to be overthrown as public don’t agree

how does political corruption affect human rights (x4)

1. can lead to the misallocation of public funds away from public services and infrastructure

2. economic inequality as wealth and resources are concentrated with few people (limits opportunities)

3. weakened rule of law leading to the erosion of justice and societal instability (allowing for human rights abuses etc.)

4. environmental degradation as overlook environmental regulations or allow illegal activities for economic development

case study of China for human rights (x3)

• authoritarian with only party as the Chinese Communist Party

• deliberately attempted to reduce population of Uyghurs through forced sterilisation, contraception and abortion (BR decreased by more than 60%)

• censorship of media

case study of US for human rights (x4)

• frequent invocation of human rights in international forums

• active participation in various UN forums e.g. Human Rights, Democracy and Rule of Law

• advocates human rights as a cornerstone of its foreign policy, promoting democracy, freedom of expression and protection against discrimination

• BENEFITS: strengths global influence by promoting democratic values, more likely to secure peace, deter aggression and combat international terrorism and help create a stable and more prosperous global economy

case study of Singapore for human rights (x4)

• prioritise economic development over human rights as argues economic stability and growth are essential for overall societal well-being

• leadership has historically emphasised the need for autocratic measures to ensure political stability and economic progress, meaning limited freedom justified as necessary for maintaining harmony

• E.G. GDP in 1960 = $320 per capita vs $60,000 now

• BENEFITS: economic prosperity, ensured political stability and control of corruption

geopolitical intervention

an action taken by one or more sovereign states, within the territory of another to change the political and social conditions in that place including suffering a government has instigated, facilitated and ignored (e.g. genocide)

irredentism

the protection of people ‘trapped’ in a foreign country that are identical to those invading

key players in geopolitical interventions (x4)

1. national governments (especially US + major powers)

2. alliances e.g. NATO

3. IGOs like the IMF, World Bank

4. NGOs e.g. Amnesty International (campaign to end HR abuses through a global movement of more than 10 million people + investigations to expose abuses) and Human Rights Watch (monitor former Soviet Union’s compliance with the Helsinki Watch)

trade embargoes

policies or laws that ban exports/imports in protest of actions by that country (placing pressure on them to change policies as their economy suffers)

usually imposed by the UN or IGOs

examples of trade embargoes (x2)

1. not always successful e.g. US trade embargo with Cuba for over 50 years

2. South Africa and Apartheid in 1977

military aid (+ example)

either in the form of technology, equipment or peace-keeping forces by UN, NATO or regional equivalents e.g. ECOWAS

e.g. 2015 = US - 55% to Israel and 23% to Egypt

military action

can take a variety of forms e.g. use of aircraft OR “boots on the ground”

direct military action

use of force e.g. US soldiers in Afghanistan short-term improved women rights = more controversial but if claimed to be in the aim of defending human rights, can be justified

indirect military action

e.g. training foreign forces = UK trained 17/30 of the named countries listed for human rights abuses

development aid

often emergency aid that aims to improve QoL by meeting basic needs (food, water, healthcare, education etc.) by physical supplies E.G. Haiti