Development Test

Zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.

Genes

Basic units of heredity that carry information in the form of DNA, determining traits and characteristics passed from parents to offspring.

Embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

Fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

Teratogens

(literally, “monster maker”) agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features.

Rooting Reflex

An automatic response in infants where they turn their head and open their mouth when their cheek is touched, helping them find food.

Temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

Developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

Accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

Object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

Preoperational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

Conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Egocentrism

in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.

Concrete operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

Formal operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

Stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

Attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

Critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period.

Authoritarian parenting

parents impose rules and expect obedience

Permissive parenting

parents submit to their children’s desires. They make few demands and

use little punishment.

Authoritative parenting

parents are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules and enforcing them, but they also explain the reasons for rules. And, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion when making the rules and allow exceptions.

Adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

Primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

Secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

Sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation).

Identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

Intimacy

in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

A theory by Erik Erikson that outlines eight stages of human development, each characterized by a psychosocial conflict that must be resolved for healthy psychological development.

Identity vs. role confusion

The fifth stage in Erikson’s theory, typically occurring during adolescence, where individuals develop a sense of self and personal identity or struggle with confusion about their role in life.

The 4 stages of “The Search for Identity”

part of James Marcia's theory of identity development. These stages represent different ways in which adolescents approach the task of forming an identity. The stages are

“Stages of Adulthood”

The life stages after adolescence, typically including early adulthood (20s-40s), middle adulthood (40s-60s), and late adulthood (60s+), each with unique challenges and developmental milestones.

Aging

The process of growing older, involving physical, cognitive, and emotional changes that occur as people advance in years.

Social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

Emerging adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid- twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood.

“The Five Marks”

A concept related to adult development, often referring to key psychological milestones of adulthood, such as career development, family formation, personal growth, and achieving a sense of life satisfaction.

Menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

Mid-Life Crisis

A period of emotional turmoil and self-reflection that some people experience in middle adulthood, often due to the realization of aging, unfulfilled goals, or a desire for change.

Neurocognitive Disorders

A category of disorders characterized by a decline in cognitive functioning, such as memory, learning, and decision-making, often due to aging or brain injury.

Alzheimer’s Disease

A progressive neurocognitive disorder that causes memory loss, confusion, and changes in behavior, commonly affecting older adults due to brain cell degeneration.

Dementia

A general term for the decline in cognitive abilities severe enough to interfere with daily life, often associated with diseases like Alzheimer's, strokes, or other conditions.

Fluid intelligence

The ability to think quickly, solve novel problems, and adapt to new situations. It tends to decline with age.

Crystallized Intelligence

The accumulation of knowledge and skills acquired through experience and education, which tends to remain stable or even increase with age.

The two basic aspects of our lives that dominate adulthood

According to Erikson, these are intimacy vs. isolation (forming relationships) and generativity vs. stagnation (contributing to society or feeling stagnant).

Erikson vs. Freud

Erikson focused on psychosocial development through eight stages of life, emphasizing social and emotional development and the resolution of conflicts. Freud focused on psychosexual stages of development, emphasizing unconscious desires, early childhood experiences, and the influence of sexuality on personality.

Jean Piaget

A Swiss psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development. He proposed that children go through four stages of cognitive development

Lawrence Kohlberg

An American psychologist best known for his theory of moral development, which consists of three levels

Erik Erikson

A German-American developmental psychologist famous for his theory of psychosocial development, which includes eight stages spanning from infancy to late adulthood. Erikson believed that each stage involves a specific conflict that must be resolved for healthy psychological development.