motor learning

positive, negative, and zero

what are the three types of transfer

positive transfer

there is an enhancement or facilitation of the learning of new skill or the performance of a skill in a new context

negative transfer

when previous experience hinders or interferes with the learning of a new skill or the performance of a skill in a new context

zero transfer

previous experience has no bearing on learning or performance

transfer test performance

what provides the best assessment of learning

similarity of skill and context components and similarity of processing requirements

why does positive transfer occur

negative transfer

Considered temporary and rare in motor learning. environmental context characteristics of two performance situations are similar, but the movement characteristics are different. influences skill learning only in the early learning stage..

transfer of learning

the influence of previous experience on learning a new skill or performing a skill in a new context

transfer-appropriate processing

practice effectiveness should be judged by how well the skill transfers to the test context, not how well it performs during practice

why negative transfer occurs

perception-action coupling can become problematic when the familiar perceptual situation requires a movement that is different from what was learned. results from cognitive confusion. learners intrinsic dynamics compete with the required task dynamics

learning how to learn

extracting general principles from practicing multiple tasks that can transfer to learning new tasks. AKA practicing a variety of tasks so the learner develops general strategies that help them adapt quickly to new skills.

bilateral transfer

transfer of learning that occurs between two limbs

asymmetric transfer

greater transfer from one limb than from the other limb. preferably from the dominant limb to the non-dominant limb

symmetric transfer

amount of transfer is similar from one limb to another, regardless of which was used first. equal transfer

True

T or F: Motor control explanation for bilateral transfer is generalized motor programs (GMP) and dynamic pattern theories supports transfer between limbs.

demonstration

visually showing a learner how to perform a skill so they can observe and learn the movement pattern. the terms modeling and observational learning are often used interchangeably with this term. involves visual observation on the part of the learner

invariant relative motions that characterize the coordinated movement pattern

what does the observer perceive from a demonstration

False

T or F: Demonstration is least beneficial when the skill requires learning a new pattern of coordination

mirror neurons

what neural mechanism support observational learning

inferior frontal gyrus, SMA, pre-SMA, parietal and lateral temporal cortex

what brain areas are activated during observation

correctly

Demonstrator should perfom the skill ____ so the observer can imitate invariant movement patterns and succeful strategies. You don’t just want anyone teaching you the skill. you want the best of the best

yes

can novices benefit from observing other novices

novices learning from other novices

encourages problem solving, avoids discouragement, and feels more relatable

before and during practice

according to gentile, when should demonstration occur

when the goal involves rhythm or timing

when is auditory modeling most effective

cognitive mediation theory

observed movements are translated into a symbolic memory code that forms the basis that is used to guide performance. step by step instructions

dynamic view of modeling

the visual system picks up from the model salient information that effectively constrains the body and limbs to act in specific ways. when you watch someone move, your body learns how to move by reacting to what it sees, not by memorizing instructions.

demonstration

illusion of learning, reduced problem solving, and lack of individualization are the potential downsides of what?

movement outcomes rather than body movements

what should effective verbal instructions focus on

verbal cues

short phrases that direct attention to regulatory conditions in the environmental context and prompt key movement components of skills.

verbal analogies

using this would be an important factor to consider when developing effective verbal instruction

augmented feedback

performance related information that is added to task-intrinsic feedback. typically comes from an external source

task-intrinsic feedback

sensory information that is naturally available when performing a skill. This is the feedback you get automatically from your senses

task-intrinsic and augmented feedback

what are the two types of performance related feedback

Knowledge of results

externally presented information about the outcome of a performance. answers only one question: did i succeed or not. For example: you made the shot, you missed by 3 inches, your time was 12 seconds

knowledge of performance

gives information about the movement characteristics that led to a performance outcome. tells you how you moved. For example: your elbow dropped, you leaned too far forward

descriptive and prescriptive KP

what are the two types of verbal Knowledge of Performance (KP)

descriptive KP

describes the error the performer has made

prescriptive KP

describes the error and the corrective measure on how to fix it

KP

manual guidance, video replay, movement kinetics/kinematics, and biofeedback are all types of what

concurrent augmented feedback

augmented feedback provided while a person is performing a skill

terminal augmented feedback

provided after a person has completed the performance of a skill.

traditional view

giving feedback every trial. Augmented feedback should be given during or after every practice trial because no learning occurred on trials without augmented feedback

contemporary view

reducing the frequency for giving augmented feedback

True

T or F: Giving feedback every single time makes learners rely on it too much

guidance hypothesis

too much augmented feedback improves performance during practice but harms learning. the learner becomes dependent on augmented feedback which lead to poor performance when augmented feedback is withdrawn.

bandwidth, self-selected, and summary feedback

what 3 techniques reduce dependence on augmented feedback

practice variability

the variety of movement and context characteristics a person experiences while practicing a skill. Not doing the same thing the same way every time. it emphasizes that the learner acquires an increased capability not only to perform the practiced skill itself, but also to perform skill in novel situations that might characterize the ones in test. helps you to adapt, not just repeat

constant practice

practice involving one variation of a skill. which is doing the same thing over and over

variable practice

practice involving several variations of the skill. Doing the same skill in different ways. greater amounts of this practice leads to better learning than lesser amounts.

positive transfer

what types of transfer does practice variability enhances from practice to test contexts

vary non-regulatory conditions

how should variability be applied to closed skills

vary both regulatory and non-regulatory conditions

how should variability be applied to open skills

contextual interference

the memory and performance disruption that results from performing variations of a skill within the context of practice. practice will feel harder and messier this way. your brain keeps switching tasks, which feels confusing. Random practice produces a high amount of this

contextual interference effect

occurs when a high amount of contextual interference results in better learning of the task variations than a low amount of interference.

metacognition

judging how much you think you are learning. practice performance influences the learners’ judgements about how much they are learning depending on which practice schedule they experienced.

no

does the contextual interference effect apply to all skills and learners

challenge point hypothesis

the implementation of specific practice conditions that will optimally challenge the person in a way that will enhance skill learning. learning is optimized when practice difficulty matches the learner’s skill level.

True

T or F: people who practice according to a blocked schedule tend to overestimate how well they are learning during practice

elaboration and action plan reconstruction hypothesis

why does contextual interference occur

elaboration hypothesis

the effect is related to a more elaborate memory representation of the practiced skill variations. thinking deeply, comparing things, and making connections. creates a stronger and more detailed memory

action plan reconstruction hypothesis

forgetting and rebuilding. Random practice improves learning because learners must repeatedly reconstruct the action plan due to forgetting between trials

practice specificity

skill learning is influenced by how closely practice matches performance conditions

practice specificity characteristics

sensory/perceptual, performance context, and cognitive processing characteristics

especial skills

skill variations that are performed much better than similar variations. for example, free throws and pitching distance

overlearning

continuation of practice beyond the amount needed to achieve a certain performance criterion. Research shows it can have a positive influence on the retention of motor skill learning.

procedural skills of easy movements

for what type of skills is overlearning effective

True

T or F: Amount of practice is not the critical variable influencing motor skill. It interacts with other practice variables. How you practice matters more than how much you practice

massed practice

long practice sessions with short rest periods

distributed practice

shorter practice session with longer rest periods. spreading practice out over time

continuous skill

distributed schedules/practice are more effective in promoting learning than massed schedules for this type of skill

discrete skills

massed practice are more effective than distributed practice in promoting learning for these skills

skill complexity

number of parts or components and the degree of information processing that characterize a skill. how many things are happening at once and how much thinking is required.

difficulty

complexity does not mean…

skill organization

the relationships among component parts of the skill. how connected the parts are

whole practice

Low complexity + high organization

part practice

high complexity + low organization

whole practice

which practice is best for discrete skills, part or whole

part practice

which practice is best for serial skills, part or whole

both

which practice is best for continuous skills, part or whole

the 3 part practice strategies

fractionization, segmentation, simplification

mental practice

the cognitive rehearsal of a physical skill in the absence of overt physical movements. Thinking about the cognitive or procedural aspects of a motor skill. Engaging in visual and/or kinesthetic imagery of the performance of a skill or part of a skill. so practicing in your head without moving your body.

true

T or F: physical practice is better than mental practice and no practice but the combination of both mental and physical practice promotes cognitive problem solving activity

imagery

what is the most common mental practice strategy for skilled athletes preparing to perform a skill