biodiversity of vertebrates midterm

biodiversity of vertebrates midterm-lecture notes only

Evolution

The process by which living organisms have changed and diversified over time through genetic variation, heredity, and natural selection.

Variation

Differences in traits within a population that arise from genetic mutations, recombination, and gene flow.

Heredity

The transmission of traits from one generation to the next through genetic information passed from parents to offspring.

Natural selection

The process by which certain traits become more or less common in a population over successive generations due to the survival and reproductive success of individuals with well-suited traits.

Adaptation

The process by which populations become better suited to their environment over time through natural selection acting on advantageous variations.

Speciation

The formation of new species through reproductive isolation and genetic divergence.

Extinction

The complete disappearance of a species due to environmental changes, competition, predation, or the inability to adapt to new conditions.

Phylogenetics

The study of evolutionary relationships between different species or groups of organisms through the construction of phylogenetic trees.

Common ancestry

The concept that all living organisms share a common origin, represented by the branching patterns in phylogenetic trees.

Taxonomic units

Organisms organized into taxonomic units, such as species, genera, families, etc., represented as nodes or branches on a phylogenetic tree.

Nodes and branches

Nodes represent common ancestors, where branches split apart, and each node represents a hypothetical common ancestor.

Branch lengths

The lengths of branches in a phylogenetic tree represent factors such as time or genetic divergence.

Homologous traits

Shared characteristics inherited from a common ancestor and used in constructing phylogenetic trees.

Cladistics

A method used to construct phylogenetic trees based on shared derived traits and identifying the most recent common ancestor for each group.

Skeletal system

The framework of structures made of bones and cartilage that support and protect the body.

Axial skeleton parts

Includes the skull, vertebrae, ribs, and sternum.

Appendicular skeleton parts

Includes the fore and hind limbs.

Classification of bones

Short bone, flat bone, irregular bone, sesamoid, and long bone.

Appendicular forelimb

Scapula, clavicle, humerus, ulna, radius, carpus, metacarpals.

Appendicular hindlimb

Pelvis, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsus, metatarsal.

Types of muscle

Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle.

Muscle movement

Agonist, antagonist, abduction, adduction, flexion, and extension.

Description/function of muscles

Masseter, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, abdominal obliques, gluteals, biceps femoris, biceps brachii, triceps brachii, pectorals, serratus ventralis.

Functions of the nervous system

Detects and processes information, formulates responses, and coordinates and controls bodily activity.

Parts of a neuron

Cell body, dendrite, axon, synapse, myelin.

Types of neurons

Sensory neurons, connecting neurons, motor neurons.

Central nervous system

Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Parts of the Brain

Meninges, cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, medulla oblongata, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland.

Spinal cord

Pathway for all impulses going to and from the brain, connects to the medulla oblongata.

Alveoli

Grape-like clusters at ends of bronchioles where exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases occur.

Bronchi

Paired terminal branches of the trachea contained within the lungs.

Bronchioles

Smallest branches of the bronchial tree.

Cilia

Tiny hairs inside nostrils that help to filter air.

Diaphragm

Muscle located below the lungs; contraction causes the lungs to draw in a breath.

Epiglottis

Flap that covers the larynx during swallowing.

Exhalation

Release of a breath.

Inhalation

Drawing in of a breath.

Lungs

Paired major organs of respiration that contain bronchi and are divided into clearly defined lobes.

Mucous membrane

Lining of respiratory tract that secretes mucus.

Mucus

Slimy secretion that warms, moistens, and filters air.

Pharynx

Common passageway for both the respiratory and digestive systems.

Respiration

Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases with cells.

Trachea

Windpipe; has distinct rings of cartilage.

Notochord

Flexible, rod-like structure found along the length of the body in chordates; provides support and serves as an axis for muscle attachment.

Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord

Dorsal nerve cord that runs along the back of chordates; develops into the central nervous system.

Pharyngeal Slits or Pouches

Slits or pouches in the pharyngeal region of chordates; serve functions such as filter-feeding or gas exchange.

Post-Anal Tail

Tail extending beyond the anus in chordates; plays various roles such as propulsion for swimming or balance.

Endostyle

Specialized organ found in certain chordates and precursor to the thyroid gland.

Phylogeny

Evolutionary history and relationships among vertebrates that possess a backbone or vertebral column.

Agnatha

Earliest vertebrates that were jawless fishes such as lampreys.

Chondrichthyes

Cartilaginous fishes such as sharks and rays.

Osteichthyes

Bony fishes, the most diverse group of vertebrates.

Tetrapods

Vertebrates with four limbs or their descendants.

Lissamphibia

Amphibians such as frogs, toads, and salamanders.

Amniota

Tetrapods that have evolved specialized adaptations for reproduction on land.

Reptilia

Reptiles including turtles, snakes, lizards, crocodilians, and birds.

Mammals

Amniotes characterized by mammary glands for milk production and hair or fur for insulation.

Cells

Smallest unit of the body that requires oxygen and nutrients from the blood.

Tissue

Collection of cells that all do the same function.

Organ

Collection of different tissues that work together.

Organ system

Organ and everything that is related to that organ.

Organism

Sum of all the organ systems in the body.

Cardiac and circulatory system

Heart, arteries, veins, bone marrow.

Hepatic system

Liver, gall bladder, bile duct.

Respiratory system

Lungs, trachea, bronchioles.

Renal system

Kidneys, ureter, bladder.

Gonadal system

Ovaries/testes, uterus/penis.

Gastrointestinal system

Esophagus, stomach, intestines, pancreas.

Immunological system parts

Spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, appendix.

Dermal system

Epidermis, hypodermis, endodermis.

Muscular-skeletal system

Bones, cartilage, joints, muscles, tendons.

Endocrine system

Hypothalamus, thyroid, adrenals, gonads.

Nervous system

Brain, spinal cord, nerves.

Integumentary system

Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, oil glands.

Skeletal system

Bones, cartilage, ligaments.

Types of muscles

Skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, cardiac muscle.

Nervous system

Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs.

Endocrine system

Glands (e.g., pituitary, thyroid, adrenal), hormones.

Cardiovascular system

Heart, blood vessels, blood.

Respiratory system

Lungs, trachea, bronchi, diaphragm.

Digestive system

Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas.

Urinary system

Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, cloaca.

Reproductive system

Male - testes, penis, accessory glands; Female - ovaries, uterus, fallopian tubes, vagina.

Cranial Skeleton

Cranium, jaws, and dentition.

Jaws and Dentition

The adaptations of jaws and teeth in vertebrate evolution, including movable jaws and diverse tooth shapes, sizes, and functions for different diets.

Sensory Structures

The various sensory structures in the cranial skeleton of vertebrates, such as the eyes, ears, and olfactory organs, which enhance sensory perception and environmental interaction.

Axial Skeleton

The vertebral column and ribs, providing support, flexibility, and protection for the spinal cord and internal organs, with variations in number, shape, and attachment reflecting locomotor and respiratory adaptations.

Locomotor Adaptations

Adaptations in the axial skeleton for different modes of movement, such as elongated vertebral column and limb reduction in snakes, fused neck vertebrae in birds, and limb girdles and limbs in tetrapods.

Postural Adaptations

The role of the axial skeleton in maintaining posture, with adaptations like curved vertebrae in primates for upright posture and specialized vertebrae in fish for buoyancy control.

Agnathans (Jawless Fish)

The cranial and axial skeleton adaptations in jawless fish, including a simple cranial skeleton and a segmented and flexible vertebral column made of cartilage.

Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous Fish)

The cranial and axial skeleton adaptations in cartilaginous fish, including a well-developed and mineralized cranial skeleton with highly mobile jaws and a cartilaginous vertebral column providing stability and flexibility.

Osteichthyes (Bony Fish)

The cranial and axial skeleton adaptations in bony fish, including a well-developed and mineralized cranial skeleton with jaws and teeth specialized for specific diets, and a mineralized vertebral column providing support and flexibility.

Lissamphibia (Amphibians)

The cranial and axial skeleton adaptations in amphibians, including a skull composed of both bone and cartilage with jaws, and a vertebral column with varying degrees of mineralization and numerous vertebrae for flexibility in aquatic and terrestrial locomotion.

Testudines (Turtles)

The cranial and axial skeleton adaptations in turtles, including a highly modified cranial skeleton with a bony shell, and a highly modified axial skeleton fused to the shell for support and protection.

Lepidosauria (Lizards and Snakes)

The cranial and axial skeleton adaptations in lizards and snakes, including a cranial skeleton composed of bone with well-developed jaws, and a flexible vertebral column with elongated bodies and tails for agility and serpentine locomotion.

Aves (Birds)

The cranial and axial skeleton adaptations in birds, including a lightweight cranial skeleton with fused bones and beaks specialized for feeding, and a rigid and highly modified axial skeleton for flight with specialized vertebrae and a keeled sternum.

Mammals

The cranial and axial skeleton adaptations in mammals, including diverse cranial adaptations reflecting ecological niches and feeding strategies, and a highly specialized axial skeleton with distinct regions, well-developed ribs, and a sternum for mobility, protection, and respiration.

Restraint

Use of mechanical or chemical means to limit an animals movement.

General Principles of Restraint

Principles of handling and restraint for the well-being of wildlife, including minimizing stress, injury risks, and mortality rates during capture, restraint, and handling.

Appendicular skeleton

The bones and structures associated with the limbs in vertebrates, which have undergone modifications and adaptations for different locomotor behaviors, habitats, and functional requirements.