Studied by 14 people
cognition
mental process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses
memory
learning that has persisted over time
automatic processing
unconscious processing of well-learned information
effortful processing
requires both effort and attention; best describes cognitive processes of learning
deep/semantic processing
processing of info with consideration of its meaning and connections of its significance, requires lots of rehearsal and practice. often requires connecting new info with info previously learned and leads to better memories
shallow processing
requires less rehearsal as it just uses surface characteristics (like visuals or audio) to process info
divided attention
purposely doing two or more things at once (multitasking)
metacognition
awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes
sensory memory
immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in memory system
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as 7 digits of a phone number while dialing, before the info is stored or forgotten
long-term memory
relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
flashbulb memory
clear memory of an emotionally significant moment/event
encoding
processing of info into memory system – ex: by extracting meaning
storage
retention of encoded information over time
retrieval
process of getting info out of memory storage
rehearsal
conscious repetition of info, either to maintain it in consciousness or encode it for storage
spacing effect
tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
serial positioning effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
recognition
measure of memory in which person need only identify items previously learned (ex: multiple-choice test)
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
iconic memory
momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; photographic memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3-4 seconds
long-term potentiation
increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
amnesia
memory loss
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection (procedural memory)
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare (declarative memory)
hippocampus
neural center located in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
recall
measure of memory in which the person must retrieve info learned earlier (ex: fill-in-the-blank test)
priming
activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
deja vu
eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of earlier experience
mood-congruent theory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good/bad mood
proactive interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new info (forward-acting)
retroactive interference
disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old info (backward-acting)
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading info into one’s memory of an event
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (source misattribution). Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories
concept
mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to prototype provides quick and easy method for including items in category
algorithm
methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving particular problem. Contrasts with usually speedier (but more error-prone) use of heuristics
heuristic
simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually faster but also more error-prone than algorithms
insight
sudden and often novel realization of solution to problem; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
belief perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conception after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
fixation
inability to see problem from new perspective; impediment to problem solving
mental set
tendency to approach problem in particular way, often a way that has been successful in past
functional fixedness
tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; impediment to problem solving
representativeness heuristic
judging likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent or match particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant info
availability heuristic
estimating likelihood of events based on availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events as common
overconfidence
tendency to be more confident than correct, to overestimate accuracy of one’s belief and judgments
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
belief bias
tendency for one person’s existing beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid
overconfidence bias
tendency to be more confident than correct, to overestimate accuracy of one’s belief and judgments
intelligence
mental quality consisting of ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
factor analysis
statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test; used to identify diff dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score
general intelligence
general intelligence factor that (according to Spearman and others) underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
emotional intelligence
ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
savant syndrome
condition in which person otherwise limited in mental ability has exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
creativity
ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
intelligence test
method for assessing individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
mental age
measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; chronological age that most typically corresponds to given level of performance
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
defined originally as percentage of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca), thus IQ = ma/ca * 100. Contemporary intelligence tests assign avg performance for given age on scale of 100. American revision of Binet’s original intelligence test
aptitude v. achievement test
Aptitude: predicts a person's future performance; aptitude is capacity to learn. Achievement: assesses what person has already learned
Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
WAIS is most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests
standardization
defining meaningful scores by comparison with performance of pretested standardization group
normal curve
symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near extremes
reliability
extent to which test yields consistent results, as assessed by consistency of scores on two halves of test, on alternate forms of test, or on retesting
validity
extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure
mental retardation
condition of limited mental ability, indicated by intelligence score of 70 or under and difficulty in adapting to demands of life; varies from mild to profound
Down Syndrome
condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by extra chromosome in one’s genetic makeup
stereotype threat
self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on negative stereotype
Transience
accessibility to memory decreases over time (storage decay)
Anti-transience
in highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM) ppl, memories of earlier events are clear and easily accessed. Their memories of recent events are similar to non-HSAM individuals, but their accessibility doesn’t decrease over time
Absentmindedness
forgetting caused by lapses in attention
Retrieval cues
stimulate memory and abate absentmindedness
Blocking
accessibility to info is temporarily blocked (ex: Word on tip of tongue)
Interference
learning other info can interfere w/ ability to retrieve smth else
Suggestibility
asking leading questions that suggest smth that never existed
Persistence
inability to forget undesirable memories
Motivated forgetting
defense mechanism that pushes painful, anxiety-reducing memories, thoughts, and feelings into subconscious
Fuzzy Trace Theory
Verbatim traces are memories of exact details of what actually happened, Gist traces are memories based on our general understanding of what happened or what event meant to person (children less affected by it)
cross-race effect
not being able to differentiate ppl of diff races
Stereotype
a way our brains tend to generalize information (overgeneralized belief)
Confirmation bias
tendency to find and trust info that confirms our existing ideas
Divergent thinking
process of creating multiple, unique ideas or solutions to a problem
Convergent thinking
narrowing down to best idea, logic-based
Law of Diminishing Returns
higher intelligence → less impact on task performed. essentially, advantage of high intelligence diminishes past certain threshold
Perceptual speed
ppl who perceive input more quickly tend to score higher on intelligence tests
Neurological speed
ppl who score higher on intelligence tests tend to register simple stimulus more quickly and show faster brain response when completing simple task
sensation
process by which our sensory receptors and our nervous system receive and represent environmental stimuli
perception
how our brains organize and interpret sensory stimuli (attach meaning to them)
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins w/ sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory info
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
selective attention
our brain’s ability to hyperfocus on the things we need to be paying attention to
inattentional blindness
when we become so focused on smth that we don’t know/perceive other stimuli
Gustav Flechner
developed concept of absolute threshold. Said that most w/o impaired senses can see a candle atop another mountain 30 mi away, feel bee’s wing on cheek, smell single drop of perfume in 3 bedroom apartment, taste teaspoon of sugar diluted in 2 gal of water, etc
absolute thresholds
minimum amount of stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time by most ppl
subliminal
falls below absolute threshold of conscious awareness
priming
activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response
difference threshold
minimum difference between 2 stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (jnd)
Ernst Weber’s law
principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than constant amount)
Note 
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