AP Psych - Unit 2

Hallucinations

false sensory experiences

Nervous System

the body's electrochemical communication system

Neuron

the specialized cells that make up the nervous system; a nerve cell

Dendrites

The branchlike structures of the neuron that receive messages from other cells

Soma

The cell body of the neuron

Myelin Sheath

The part of some neurons that covers the axon to improve the speed of neural impulses

Axon

The part of the neuron that sends messages to other neurons

Neurotransmitters

A chemical messenger between two neurons

Synapse

the small, fluid-filled gap between a dendrite and an axon

Interneurons

The neurons in the brain and spinal cord that process all incoming impulses

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

Once the interneurons decide what to do, these neurons send messages to muscles and glands to make the body go

Antagonist

A substance that blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter

Agonist

A substance that enhances the effects of a neurotransmitter

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that triggers muscle movement and affects both learning and memory

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter that affects learning, attention, and emotion

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood

Peripheral Nervous System

The nerves that are spread throughout the body that transmit messages from the brain to the rest of the body

Somatic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system that handles voluntary movement

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system that handles involuntary movement

Sympathetic Division

The part of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes body systems during activity (fight or flight)

Parasympathetic Division

The part of the autonomic nervous system that promotes "housekeeping" functions during rest (rest and digest)

Endocrine System

A set of glands that control the body using hormones

Brainstem

Where the spinal cord overlaps with the brain; handles automatic survival functions

Medulla Oblongata

The base of the brain stem that controls life-support functions like heartbeat and breathing

Reticular Formation

a nerve network in the brainstem; Handles wakefulness and arousal

Thalamus

The sensory switchboard; directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex

Cerebellum

The little brain; helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance

Limbic System

An area of the lower brain that regulates memory, fear, aggression, hunger, and thirst (consists of hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala)

Hypothalamus

a neural structure that controls actions that maintain the body (eating, drinking, body temp.) and has ties to emotion

Hippocampus

a neural center that helps process new memories for long term memory

Amygdala

neural centers that are linked to emotions, especially fear and anger

Cerebral Cortex

The interconnected neural cells that form the cerebral hemispheres; ultimate control and information processing center

Longitudinal Fissure

The divide between the two hemispheres of the brain

Corpus Callosum

The part of the brain that connects the two hemispheres of the brain

Frontal Lobe

The part of the upper brain that handles all higher level thinking, personality, and memory

Parietal Lobe

The part of the upper brain that handles general processing (like math) and spatial mapping

Occipital Lobe

The part of the upper brain that processes visual information

Temporal Lobe

The part of the upper brain that processes all hearing information

Motor Cortex

The part of the upper brain that processes motor information before sending it to other parts of the brain

Somatosensory Cortex

The part of the upper brain that processes sensory information before sending it to other parts of the brain

Broca's Area

In the frontal lobe; controls muscle movement needed for speech

Wernicke's Area

In the temporal lobe; controls receptive language, which is your ability to understand what someone else says

Plasticity

the brain's ability for modification

Pituitary Gland

The primary gland in the endocrine system; secretes hormones that influence all other glands in the endocrine system

Adrenal Gland

The gland that releases adrenaline into the body

All or None Principal

The rule that the neuron will always fire at the same intensity and strength

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Adoption Studies

Research studies that assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents.

Association Areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Behavior Genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Brain Lateralization

The organization of the brain into right and left hemispheres, with each hemisphere performing unique and specialized functions

Central Nervous System (CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal cord

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

CT (computed tomography) scan

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. Also called CAT scan.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Dual Processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

Environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Evolutionary Psychologoy

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

fight/flight response

The immediate reaction to perceived danger or threat whereby efforts are directed toward protecting against potential harm, either by confronting the source of danger (fight), or by escaping from the situation (flight).

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.

Fraternal Twins

Twins who develop from separate eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Genes

DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission.

Genome

All the genetic information in an organism; all of an organism's chromosomes.

Glial Cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

Hormones

Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

Identical Twins

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Molecular Genetics

the study of the structure and function of chromosomes and genes

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

Mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Natural Selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

nature vs nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

Pons

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain; connects hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain; involved in facial expressions

Reflexes

unlearned, organized involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli

Refractory Period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

Reuptake

A process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane.

Reptake Inhibitor

When a substance blocks a neurotransmitter from the reuptake process

Sensory (afferent) Neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Split Brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Twin Studies

A research design in which hereditary influence is assessed by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait.

Reuptake inhibitors

Substances that interfere with the reuptake of neurotransmitters in the synapse so that a greater amount remains in the synapse

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation

Split Brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Addiction

A physiological or psychological dependence on a drug

Alcohol use disorder

(popularly known as alcoholism). Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.

Dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

Dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind

Ecstasy (MDMA)

A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen that produces euphoria and social intimacy

Hallucinogens

psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur