Exam 1 Study Guide: Child and Adolescent Development

Development

the sequence of physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that occur as people grow older
Development\= age-related change
- orderly (atypical development, takes longer to learn to walk, talk)
- cumulative (gain skills over time and they stay with you)
- directional (having an end goal in mind, wanting to walk, rolling over, crawling, standing up, etc.)

Theory

a framework or set of principles that guide the collection, organization, interpretation, and prediction of information
(broad idea and is general, can be tested in many way)

Classes of Theories of Development

Psychosocial Theory:- Erik Erikson- social-emotional development (8 stages of development)
Learning Theories:
- classical/operant conditioning (bells, shocks)
- Albert Bandura- social learning (bobo the clown experiment, observational learning)
Cognitive Theories:
- Jean Piaget's Theory
- Information processing theory
Biological Theories:
- Ethology: Bowlby & Ainsworth (analyzing why something is advantageous) Why babies get attached to care-givers

Contextual Approaches

Each and every child exists in a unique and complicated context with many forces and factors interacting to produce developmental change
Also known as systems theories
- emphasize the complex interactions among the biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences on development
- Ex: Vygotsky's Sociocultural theory and Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory

Brofenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory

Microsystem: (direct influences, interaction with teachers, parents, siblings/friends, activities involved in)

Mesosystem: (interactions among microsystem elements, not being directly involved, mom&dad, parents&teachers, parents&friends, parents interacting with each other)

Exosystem: (indirect influences, the child has little direct contact with family, friends OR does not have an influence on these institutions/individuals ie. school board, board of trustees teachers children are in our exosystem)

Macrosystem: (cultural beliefs, values, customs, and institutions - includes beliefs about parenting
- subculture: when beliefs/values differ from the majority culture (breast milk vs formula)
ex: what's okay to do with kids vs what's not)

Chronosystem: (time linked influences, war, economic condition)

Nature vs Nurture

the origin of developmental change
nature: genes, evolution, heredity, biology
nurture: environment, context, experience

ex: learning to read (might not be getting the materials to practice with & might have to wear glasses or might have a learning disability) themeldahide babies

Continuous Developmental Change

- continuous/gradual/quantitative
ex: starfish, height in children, hair growth, word knowledge

Discontinuous Developmental Change

- discontinuous/stage-like/qualitative
ex: dragonfly, object permanence (because I can't see it doesn't mean it's gone), self awareness, puberty
(Piaget's theory is a stage theory)

Active Participant

being innately good or innately evil
constructivist theories: children actively construct an understanding of the world through experience

Passive Participant

one who participates in an event simply by listening and observing rather than by overt actions
-tabula rasa (blank slate)
-stimulus-\> response (no mind)

Correlation Designs

studies intended to indicate how two variables are related to each other

ex:
- shoe size correlates to height (positive correlation)
- time studying and grade on the test (positive correlation)
- \# of cigarettes smoked per day and life expectancy (negative correlation)

Experimental Designs

Independent/Dependent Variables
- actively manipulate one of the variables to see how it affects the outcome of the other variable
Experimental/Control Groups- many studies have more than these two groups
ex: drug trials (some get the drug, some don't (control group))

Longitudinal Designs

describes research that measures a trait in a particular group of subjects over a long period of time
- good because you're studying the same person/people over time and you don't worry about individual differences
- the amount of time allows you to watch development
cons:
- have to find test subjects again, they might drop out of your study (participant attrition/mortality)
- a long and time-consuming process
- A lot of external variables to consider

Cross Sectional Designs

type of study that measures a variable across several age groups at the same time
- no longer have a time-consuming part
- don't have to worry about anyone dropping out of your study (attrition)
- might have the cohort effect

Cross Sequential Designs

research design in which participants are first studied by means of a longitudinal design then do that with other groups and compare with a cross-sectional design but also followed and assessed for a period of no more than six years
pros:
- can look at effects of development
- can compare different groups to see if there's a cohort effect
cons:
- have to keep track of groups
- very time consuming and complicated

Ethics in Developmental Research

-Freedom from harm
-Informed consent (have to tell them everything that will happen)
-Use of deception (not lying unnecessarily)
-Maintenance of Privacy (HIPAA)

ex when ethics weren't used: (Stanford Prison Experiment, Shock Experiment)

Chromosomes

- most human cells contain 46 chromosomes in the cell nucleus (23 pairs)
-22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes
-made of DNA

Genes

a section of DNA that can be linked to outcomes (how people turn out)

Alleles

Different forms of a gene
ex: blood type, eye color

Mitosis

cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes
- includes DNA replication and cell division
- results in 2 identical "daughter" cells

Meiosis

a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.
- includes crossing over (exchange of genetic info. between chromosomes) and 2nd cell division
- results only in gametes (ova and sperm)
- ea. gamete contains 23 chromosomes (first half) then get the other half from the other parent (conception)

Crossing Over

increase the genetic diversity of the resulting gametes

ex: King Tut had a lot of genetic disorders due to no genetic diversity

Genotype

genetic makeup of an organism; an organism's combination of alleles

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

Homozygous

An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait
ex: BB, bb

Heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a trait
ex: Bb, bB

Dominant vs Recessive

Dominant: it is expressed in a person who has only one copy of the gene associated with the trait.
ex: can roll tongue, free earlobe, dimples, curly hair

Recessive: a trait that is apparent only when two recessive alleles for the same characteristic are inherited
ex: can't roll tongue, red hair, light hair

Incomplete Dominance

The situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele
ex: wavy hair

Codominance

A condition in which both alleles for a gene are fully expressed
ex: animal coats/feathers

Sex Linked Traits

Traits controlled by genes located on sex chromosomes.
-traits determined by single recessive allele
- more commonly expressed in males
ex: red-green color blindness, hemophilia

Polygenic Traits

determined by multiple genes and therefore more than one pair of alleles
ex: skin color, eye color
what psychologists are most interested in because it influences personality, intelligence, etc

Mutation

change in DNA sequence
- changes can range from single nucleotide base pairs to whole chromosomes
- passed on to offspring if present in ova/sperm (sex chromosomes)
ex: down syndrome, sickle-cell anemia, Huntington's disease

Canalization

the degree to which a genotype produces the same phenotype regardless of environmental variability
- highly canalized traits are strongly genetically determined and develop in nearly all children in spite of environmental variation
ex: everyone growing hair, two arms/legs, memory abilities
- weakly canalized traits are ones that are strongly influenced by environmental variation
ex: language, weight

Gene-Environment Correlations

- Passive Correlations
- Evocative
- Active

Passive Correlations

the parents' genes influence parental characteristics and behaviors that influence the rearing environment they provide for the child

ex: "smart" genes lead to smart parent who provides smart environment; reading to children, explaining things to them, talking to them a lot

Active Correlations

the child's genes influence behaviors and characteristics that then influence how children shape and select their environments

ex: genes influence physical ability (athletic vs non athletic) which then lead children to choose different activities

Evocative Correlations

the child's genes determine child characteristics and behaviors that then evoke certain reactions from others

ex: people respond differently to male vs. female infants

Zygote

the fertilized egg (two gametes); it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Gametes

a mature haploid male or female germ cell that is able to unite with another of the opposite sex in sexual reproduction to form a zygote.
ea. gamete contains 23 chromosomes

Prenatal Development Vulnerability

Germinal: An estimated 60 percent of all zygotes do not grow or implant properly and thus do not survive the germinal period.

Embryonic: About 20 percent of all embryos are aborted spontaneously. This is usually called an early miscarriage.

Fetal: About 5 percent of all fetuses are aborted spontaneously before viability at 22 weeks or are stillborn, defined as born dead after 22 weeks. This is much more common in poor nations.

Birth: Because of all these factors, only about 31 percent of all zygotes grow and survive to become living newborn babies.

Germinal Period

The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, are characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation.
- zygote is self-sustaining until implantation in the uterine wall

Embryonic Period

the period from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism begin to develop
- organogenesis occurs

Fetal Period

The third and longest period of prenatal development extends from the ninth week until birth. Refinement of structure and growth
- organs continue to mature
- increases in size and weight
- viability improves between 24-28 wks

Organogenesis

development of all major organs and structures (morning sickness occurs)
- development is cephalocaudal and proximodistal
- embryo looks human by the end
- organs begin functioning
- placenta and amnion also develop
- teratogens (harmful environmental influences) can have major effects

Cephalocaudal

head to tail

Proximodistal

"Near to far"
Extremities grow later than head, chest, and trunk

Fetal Movement

8-15 wks: emergence of startle reflex, hiccups, breathing, suck & swallow, yawn, etc
by 15 wks: all movements seen in newborn movement can't be felt by the mom until the 4th month

Fetal Perception

sensory system begin to function during the fetal period
feeling touch: tactile sense functions by 10 wks
feeling motion: 5 months
hearing: 4-5 months
seeing: 7 months, but visual system is still very immature at birth

Age of Viability

age at which a preterm newborn may survive outside the mother's uterus if medical care is available
- about 22 weeks after conception
- brain is able to regulate basic body functions

Threshold Effect

certain teratogens are relatively harmless until exposure reaches a certain level
ex: caffeine

Teratogens

things in the environment that can negatively affect prenatal development
ex:drugs (legal (Tylenol), illegal)
diseases of the mother (rubella, listeria)
health conditions of the mother (poor nutrition, diabetes, depression)
fish
cat litter

Critical Periods of Risk

the effect of a teratogen depends on when the fetus is exposed

Germinal: usually no effects but can result in prenatal death

Embryonic: most susceptible to major birth defects; most critical of the 3 periods

Fetal: less susceptible but teratogens can have minor defects, slow growth, or cause premature birth
(thalidomide babies)

Potential Teratogens

- drugs (legal and illegal)
- diseases of the mother (rubella or listeria)
- health conditions of the mother (poor nutrition, diabetes, depression)
- fish
- unpasteurized cheese
- cat litter
- environmental agents (radiation, pollution levels, factories (lead))
- intense exercise (keep below 150)

Sleeper Effects

the impact of a given agent may not be apparent for many years
ex: language delay, lower IQ, ADHD

Function of Morning Sickness

To get rid of teratogens, or things that might seem harmful to the body
it protects the mother and fetus from food borne illness and it shields the fetus from chemicals that can harm the formation of their organs during critical times of development

Average Duration of Labor

fetal brain signals the release of hormones to trigger the female's uterine muscles
for first born babies: 16-24 hours
quicker labor for later-born babies

Stages of Childbirth

1st: cervix dilates from 0-10cm, having contractions every few minutes (16-24 hours)

2nd: pushing phase where the baby exits the body (want baby face down) takes about 90 minutes

3rd: have lighter less intense contractions to get out the placenta (about 30 min)

Natural Childbirth

The act or process of giving birth using limited medication

Childbirth Attendants

Obstetrician
Midwife
Doula

Pain Management Techniques

-epidural anesthesia
-walking epidural/ dual-spinal epidural

Cesarean Delivery

birth in which the baby is surgically removed from uterus, rather than traveling through birth canal
- occurs most frequently when fetus shows distress, or fetal position, mom medical conditions

Post Delivery Hospital Stay

Women should stay in the hospital no less than 48 hours after giving birth.
Congress passed a minimum insurance coverage of 48 hours for childbirth

Preterm Babies

infants born before 38 weeks
- at risk for learning disabilities
- sensory disabilities
- have low-birthweight <5.5 lbs
- small for gestational age, gets compared and if they're smaller than 90% of babies in that gestational age they might have developmental/health problems

very low birth-weight infants <2.25 lbs or born before 30 weeks

this happens because mother's reproductive system difficulties, an immaturity of the mother's reproductive system, and factors related to maternal general health

Post Term Babies

born after 42 weeks
- induce moms at 41 weeks to reduce post term
- associated with higher risk of c sections
- placenta can't provide as much nutrition
- space becomes limited

APGAR Scale

a standardized way to identify if the baby needs IMMEDIATE medical attention, they get this at 1 and 5 minutes after birth
want to see an increase from 1 to 5 minutes
- assesses basic bodily functions
Appearance (want a pink body)
Pulse (<100/ 100-140)
Grimace (reflex when you touch them)
Activity (strong, active motion)
Respirations (good, normal crying)

brazelton scale: used later to screen for less obvious behavioral/neurological problems

Variations in Maternal Leave Policies

U.S. is the only country that doesn't have a federal policy for leave.
- 12 weeks of family leave
- 2.8 months off
- don't get paid during maternity leave, unless specified in work contract

Stillbirth

delivery of a child who is not alive

Infant Morality

death within the first year of life

Newborn Motor Reflexes

rooting, moro, grasping, babinski, tonic neck, swimming

- some reflexes are important for survival
- although some are permanent (blink, sneeze, cough) many you no longer do
grasping - reaching
stepping- walking
- reflexes that aren't permanent are lost within the first 6-12 months.

Newborn Sensory Capacities

touch, taste, smell, hearing, vision

Vision: underdeveloped initially
Hearing: Highly developed at birth
• Especially like to listen to human speech
• Learning can occur before birth•
Ex: Mother's voice
Smell, Taste, Touch, and Pain:
• Less well studied
• Highly developed at birth

Newborn Learning

Infants learn in a number of ways
• Textbook: Classical & Operant Conditioning
• Researchers use infant learning to ask questions about many aspects of development (not just learning!)
• Discrimination
• Categorization
• Memory, etc...

Habituation

decreased attention with repeated exposure
- As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
- when shown a new object the infant looking time increases

Classical Conditioning in Babies

babies learn to respond in a particular way to neutral stimulus that does not usually bring about that type of response
Example: Pavlov's dog, Little Albert's fear of white animals

Operant Conditioning in Babies

AKA: Instrumental Conditioning
- Changes in frequency of behavior depending on consequences
• Reinforcement - Increase frequency
• Punishment - Decrease frequency

• How this can be used to study development:
• Play a voice in response to infant turning his head to left or right: Mom vs. stranger• Infants prefer mom's voice and quickly learn to turn head towards location of her voice

Imitation in Babies

also known as observational learning
- what children learn is acquired through observation and imitation
- difficult to demonstrate in newborns
- emerges gradually
- important later in infancy and childhood
ex: facial imitation