Unit 9

Ronald Reagan

40th U.S. president (1981–1989), known for conservative policies, reducing government regulation, and a strong anti-communist foreign policy.

Supply-side economics

Economic theory arguing that lower taxes and decreased regulation stimulate business investment and economic growth.

“Trickle-down” economics

Criticism of supply-side economics suggesting benefits given to the wealthy will eventually 'trickle down' to everyone else.

Economic Recovery Tax Act (1981)

Major tax cut under Reagan aimed at stimulating the economy by reducing income tax rates.

Deregulation

Reduction or elimination of government rules in industries like airlines, banking, and telecommunications during Reagan's presidency.

PATCO (Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization)

Reagan fired 11,000 striking air traffic controllers in 1981, signaling a tough stance on labor unions.

Sandra Day O’Connor

First woman appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court (1981), by Reagan.

William Rehnquist

Chief Justice of the Supreme Court appointed by Reagan, known for his conservative rulings.

George H.W. Bush

41st U.S. president (1989–1993), Reagan’s vice president, continued many conservative policies.

“No new taxes”

Pledge made by George H.W. Bush in 1988, which he later broke, damaging his political support.

Clarence Thomas

Conservative Supreme Court Justice appointed by George H.W. Bush; his confirmation was controversial due to sexual harassment allegations.

Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)

Law prohibiting discrimination based on disability in jobs, schools, transportation, and public places.

Political polarization

Growing ideological divide between liberals and conservatives, especially evident from the 1980s onward.

Brady Bill (1993)

Gun control law requiring background checks and a waiting period for handgun purchases.

National Rifle Association (NRA)

Powerful lobbying group opposing most gun control legislation, promoting Second Amendment rights.

District of Columbia v. Heller (2008)

Supreme Court ruling affirming an individual's right to possess firearms unconnected to militia service.

LGBT Rights

Movement fighting for equal legal rights and protection for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people.

“Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” (1993)

Policy allowing gay people to serve in the military if they did not openly disclose their sexuality.

Black Lives Matter (2013–present)

Social movement protesting police brutality and systemic racism against African Americans.

MeToo (2017–present)

Movement against sexual harassment and assault, highlighting abuse by powerful individuals, especially in the workplace.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Landmark Supreme Court decision legalizing same-sex marriage in all 50 states.

Reagan Foreign Policy

Reagan aimed to confront and roll back Soviet influence globally by increasing defense spending and supporting anti-communist groups abroad.

Mikhail Gorbachev

Leader of the Soviet Union from 1985; introduced reforms (glasnost and perestroika) and worked with Reagan to reduce nuclear arms.

“Evil empire”

Reagan’s term for the Soviet Union, emphasizing its totalitarian nature and contrasting it with American democracy.

Satellites

Eastern European countries under Soviet influence during the Cold War.

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)

Reagan’s proposed space-based missile defense system to protect the U.S. from nuclear attack, nicknamed 'Star Wars.'

Nicaragua

Central American country where the U.S. supported anti-communist Contras fighting the socialist Sandinista government.

Sandinistas

Left-wing revolutionary group that overthrew the Nicaraguan dictatorship in 1979 and governed the country with Soviet support.

Contras

Anti-Sandinista rebel group in Nicaragua, backed by the Reagan administration.

Boland Amendment

Congressional law prohibiting U.S. government aid to the Contras, aiming to limit Reagan’s covert operations.

Grenada

Caribbean island invaded by the U.S. in 1983 to overthrow a Marxist regime and restore a pro-American government.

Iran-Contra Affair

Scandal in which Reagan officials secretly sold weapons to Iran and used the money to fund the Contras, violating U.S. law.

Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO)

Group representing Palestinians in their struggle for statehood; considered a terrorist group by Israel and the U.S. at the time.

Yasser Arafat

Leader of the PLO who engaged in peace negotiations with the U.S. and Israel in the 1990s.

Glasnost

Gorbachev’s policy of political openness and transparency in the Soviet Union.

Perestroika

Gorbachev’s policy of economic restructuring toward limited market-like reforms.

INF Agreement (1987)

Treaty between Reagan and Gorbachev eliminating intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Europe.

End of Cold War

Marked by the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989), collapse of communist governments in Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union’s dissolution (1991).

Tiananmen Square (1989)

Site of a major pro-democracy protest in China brutally crushed by the government, causing international condemnation.

Poland

First Eastern Bloc country to break from Soviet control, thanks in part to the Solidarity labor movement.

Lech Walesa

Leader of Solidarity in Poland; later became president of post-communist Poland.

Berlin Wall

Barrier dividing East and West Berlin; its fall in 1989 symbolized the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe.

Boris Yeltsin

First president of the Russian Federation after the fall of the Soviet Union; promoted democracy and market reforms.

Russian Republic

Largest former Soviet republic; became the core of the newly formed Russian Federation.

Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)

Loose association of former Soviet republics after the USSR’s collapse in 1991.

START I (1991)

U.S.-Soviet treaty to reduce and limit strategic offensive arms.

START II (1993)

Follow-up treaty to START I, further reducing nuclear arsenals of the U.S. and Russia.

European Union (EU)

Political and economic union of European countries promoting integration, formed in the early 1990s.

Euro

Common currency adopted by many EU countries to facilitate trade and economic unity.

Vladimir Putin

Russian president (first elected in 2000); known for centralizing power and asserting Russian influence globally.

Bosnia

Site of violent ethnic conflict in the 1990s after Yugoslavia’s breakup; required international intervention.

“Ethnic cleansing”

Forced removal or genocide of ethnic groups, particularly in the Bosnian War.

Election of 1992

Democrat Bill Clinton defeated incumbent George H.W. Bush, partly due to economic concerns and the third-party challenge from Ross Perot.

Bill Clinton

42nd U.S. president (1993–2001), focused on economic growth, welfare reform, and centrist policies.

Ross Perot

Texas billionaire who ran as a third-party candidate in 1992, emphasizing fiscal responsibility and national debt.

Brady Bill

1993 law requiring background checks and a waiting period for handgun purchases.

Anti-Crime Bill (1994)

Increased funding for police and prisons; banned certain assault weapons.

National Rifle Association (NRA)

Gun rights advocacy group opposed to gun control laws like the Brady Bill.

Newt Gingrich

Republican Speaker of the House who led the 'Contract with America' and the 1994 Republican takeover.

Republican Revolution

GOP gained control of Congress in 1994, challenging Clinton’s agenda.

Contract with America

Republican policy agenda in 1994 promising tax cuts, welfare reform, and a balanced budget.

Internet

Became a major economic and cultural force in the 1990s, driving tech industry growth.

Globalization

Increased economic, political, and cultural exchange across nations.

NAFTA

North American Free Trade Agreement (1994) among U.S., Canada, and Mexico, eliminating most trade barriers.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

International body promoting free trade; formed in 1995.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Global organization providing financial aid and economic advice to countries.

World Bank

International financial institution that provides loans for development projects.

Group of Eight (G8)

Coalition of major industrialized nations coordinating economic policy.

Top 1 percent

Refers to the wealthiest individuals in the U.S., symbolizing rising income inequality.

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965

Ended quotas based on nationality; prioritized family reunification and skilled labor.

Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986

Penalized employers who hired undocumented workers and granted amnesty to some immigrants.

Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996

Increased enforcement and reduced public benefits for undocumented immigrants.

Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA)

Obama-era policy allowing undocumented individuals brought as children to stay temporarily.

Undocumented immigrants

People living in the U.S. without legal immigration status.

Border wall

Physical barrier on the U.S.-Mexico border advocated to stop illegal immigration.

Green cards

Legal permanent residency cards allowing immigrants to live and work in the U.S.

Asylum seekers

Individuals fleeing persecution who seek protection in another country.

Single-parent families

Family structure with one parent raising children, often highlighted in demographic and social studies.

George W. Bush

43rd U.S. president (2001–2009), led U.S. response to 9/11 and wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.

Al Gore

Democratic candidate who lost the disputed 2000 election to George W. Bush.

Bush v. Gore (2000)

Supreme Court case that ended Florida’s recount and gave Bush the presidency.

Colin Powell

First African American Secretary of State, served under George W. Bush.

Al-Qaeda

Terrorist group led by Osama Bin Laden responsible for the 9/11 attacks.

Osama Bin Laden

Leader of al-Qaeda; killed by U.S. forces in 2011.

Afghanistan

First U.S. military response after 9/11 to target the Taliban and al-Qaeda.

Taliban

Islamist group that controlled Afghanistan and sheltered al-Qaeda.

“Asymmetric” warfare

Conflict between nations or groups with unequal military strength (e.g., guerrilla warfare, terrorism).

USS Cole

U.S. Navy ship attacked by al-Qaeda in 2000 in Yemen.

World Trade Center

Twin towers in NYC destroyed during 9/11 terrorist attacks.

September 11, 2001

Coordinated terrorist attacks by al-Qaeda on U.S. soil.

USA Patriot Act

Expanded government powers for surveillance and anti-terrorism efforts.

Department of Homeland Security

Created to coordinate national efforts against terrorism.

Director of National Intelligence

Oversees all U.S. intelligence agencies, created post-9/11.

Saddam Hussein

Iraqi dictator overthrown during the Iraq War.

“Axis of Evil”

Bush’s term for Iraq, Iran, and North Korea, accusing them of supporting terrorism.

Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD)

Nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons; used as justification for Iraq invasion.

Operation Iraqi Freedom

2003 invasion to remove Saddam Hussein and search for WMDs.

“War of choice”

Term used by critics to describe the Iraq War as unnecessary.

“Regime change”

Policy aimed at replacing foreign governments (e.g., Iraq).

Abu Ghraib

Prison in Iraq where U.S. soldiers abused detainees, sparking outrage.