Unit 9

Ronald Reagan: 40th U.S. president (1981–1989), known for conservative policies, reducing government regulation, and a strong anti-communist foreign policy.

Supply-side economics: Economic theory arguing that lower taxes and decreased regulation stimulate business investment and economic growth.

“Trickle-down” economics: Criticism of supply-side economics suggesting benefits given to the wealthy will eventually "trickle down" to everyone else.

Economic Recovery Tax Act (1981): Major tax cut under Reagan aimed at stimulating the economy by reducing income tax rates.

Deregulation: Reduction or elimination of government rules in industries like airlines, banking, and telecommunications during Reagan's presidency.

PATCO (Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization): Reagan fired 11,000 striking air traffic controllers in 1981, signaling a tough stance on labor unions.

Sandra Day O’Connor: First woman appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court (1981), by Reagan.

William Rehnquist: Chief Justice of the Supreme Court appointed by Reagan, known for his conservative rulings.

George H.W. Bush: 41st U.S. president (1989–1993), Reagan’s vice president, continued many conservative policies.

“No new taxes”: Pledge made by Bush in 1988, which he later broke, damaging his political support.

Clarence Thomas: Conservative Supreme Court Justice appointed by George H.W. Bush; his confirmation was controversial due to sexual harassment allegations.

Americans with Disabilities Act (1990): Law prohibiting discrimination based on disability in jobs, schools, transportation, and public places.

Political polarization: Growing ideological divide between liberals and conservatives, especially evident from the 1980s onward.

Brady Bill (1993): Gun control law requiring background checks and a waiting period for handgun purchases.

National Rifle Association (NRA): Powerful lobbying group opposing most gun control legislation, promoting Second Amendment rights.

District of Columbia v. Heller (2008): Supreme Court ruling affirming an individual's right to possess firearms unconnected to militia service.

LGBT Rights: Movement fighting for equal legal rights and protection for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people.

“Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” (1993): Policy allowing gay people to serve in the military if they did not openly disclose their sexuality.

Black Lives Matter (2013–present): Social movement protesting police brutality and systemic racism against African Americans.

#MeToo (2017–present): Movement against sexual harassment and assault, highlighting abuse by powerful individuals, especially in the workplace.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Landmark Supreme Court decision legalizing same-sex marriage in all 50 states.

Reagan Foreign Policy: Reagan aimed to confront and roll back Soviet influence globally by increasing defense spending and supporting anti-communist groups abroad.

Mikhail Gorbachev: Leader of the Soviet Union from 1985; introduced reforms (glasnost and perestroika) and worked with Reagan to reduce nuclear arms.

“Evil empire”: Reagan’s term for the Soviet Union, emphasizing its totalitarian nature and contrasting it with American democracy.

Satellites: Eastern European countries under Soviet influence during the Cold War.

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI): Reagan’s proposed space-based missile defense system to protect the U.S. from nuclear attack, nicknamed “Star Wars.”

“Star Wars”: Nickname for SDI, suggesting its futuristic and sci-fi-like nature.

Nicaragua: Central American country where the U.S. supported anti-communist Contras fighting the socialist Sandinista government.

Sandinistas: Left-wing revolutionary group that overthrew the Nicaraguan dictatorship in 1979 and governed the country with Soviet support.

Contras: Anti-Sandinista rebel group in Nicaragua, backed by the Reagan administration.

Boland Amendment: Congressional law prohibiting U.S. government aid to the Contras, aiming to limit Reagan’s covert operations.

Grenada: Caribbean island invaded by the U.S. in 1983 to overthrow a Marxist regime and restore a pro-American government.

Iran-Contra Affair: Scandal in which Reagan officials secretly sold weapons to Iran (to free hostages) and used the money to fund the Contras, violating U.S. law.

Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO): Group representing Palestinians in their struggle for statehood; considered a terrorist group by Israel and the U.S. at the time.

Yasser Arafat: Leader of the PLO who engaged in peace negotiations with the U.S. and Israel in the 1990s.

Glasnost: Gorbachev’s policy of political openness and transparency in the Soviet Union.

Perestroika: Gorbachev’s policy of economic restructuring toward limited market-like reforms.

INF Agreement (1987): Treaty between Reagan and Gorbachev eliminating intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Europe.

End of Cold War: Marked by the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989), collapse of communist governments in Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union’s dissolution (1991).

Tiananmen Square (1989): Site of a major pro-democracy protest in China brutally crushed by the government, causing international condemnation.

Poland: First Eastern Bloc country to break from Soviet control, thanks in part to the Solidarity labor movement.

Lech Walesa: Leader of Solidarity in Poland; later became president of post-communist Poland.

Berlin Wall: Barrier dividing East and West Berlin; its fall in 1989 symbolized the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe.

Boris Yeltsin: First president of the Russian Federation after the fall of the Soviet Union; promoted democracy and market reforms.

Russian Republic: Largest former Soviet republic; became the core of the newly formed Russian Federation.

Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS): Loose association of former Soviet republics after the USSR’s collapse in 1991.

START I (1991): U.S.-Soviet treaty to reduce and limit strategic offensive arms.

START II (1993): Follow-up treaty to START I, further reducing nuclear arsenals of the U.S. and Russia.

European Union (EU): Political and economic union of European countries promoting integration, formed in the early 1990s.

Euro: Common currency adopted by many EU countries to facilitate trade and economic unity.

Vladimir Putin: Russian president (first elected in 2000); known for centralizing power and asserting Russian influence globally.

Bosnia: Site of violent ethnic conflict in the 1990s after Yugoslavia’s breakup; required international intervention.

“Ethnic cleansing”: Forced removal or genocide of ethnic groups, particularly in the Bosnian War.

Election of 1992: Democrat Bill Clinton defeated incumbent George H.W. Bush, partly due to economic concerns and the third-party challenge from Ross Perot.

Bill Clinton: 42nd U.S. president (1993–2001), focused on economic growth, welfare reform, and centrist policies.

Ross Perot: Texas billionaire who ran as a third-party candidate in 1992, emphasizing fiscal responsibility and national debt.

Brady Bill: 1993 law requiring background checks and a waiting period for handgun purchases.

Anti-Crime Bill (1994): Increased funding for police and prisons; banned certain assault weapons.

National Rifle Association (NRA): Gun rights advocacy group opposed to gun control laws like the Brady Bill.

Newt Gingrich: Republican Speaker of the House who led the “Contract with America” and the 1994 Republican takeover.

Republican Revolution: GOP gained control of Congress in 1994, challenging Clinton’s agenda.

Revolution of ‘94: Another term for the Republican Revolution.

Contract with America: Republican policy agenda in 1994 promising tax cuts, welfare reform, and a balanced budget.

Internet: Became a major economic and cultural force in the 1990s, driving tech industry growth.

Globalization: Increased economic, political, and cultural exchange across nations.

NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement (1994) among U.S., Canada, and Mexico, eliminating most trade barriers.

World Trade Organization (WTO): International body promoting free trade; formed in 1995.

International Monetary Fund (IMF): Global organization providing financial aid and economic advice to countries.

World Bank: International financial institution that provides loans for development projects.

Group of Eight (G8): Coalition of major industrialized nations coordinating economic policy.

Top 1 percent: Refers to the wealthiest individuals in the U.S., symbolizing rising income inequality.

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965: Ended quotas based on nationality; prioritized family reunification and skilled labor.

Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986: Penalized employers who hired undocumented workers and granted amnesty to some immigrants.

Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996: Increased enforcement and reduced public benefits for undocumented immigrants.

Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA): Obama-era policy allowing undocumented individuals brought as children to stay temporarily.

Undocumented immigrants: People living in the U.S. without legal immigration status.

Border wall: Physical barrier on the U.S.-Mexico border advocated to stop illegal immigration.

Green cards: Legal permanent residency cards allowing immigrants to live and work in the U.S.

Asylum seekers: Individuals fleeing persecution who seek protection in another country.

Single-parent families: Family structure with one parent raising children, often highlighted in demographic and social studies.

George W. Bush: 43rd U.S. president (2001–2009), led U.S. response to 9/11 and wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.

Al Gore: Democratic candidate who lost the disputed 2000 election to George W. Bush.

Bush v. Gore (2000): Supreme Court case that ended Florida’s recount and gave Bush the presidency.

Colin Powell: First African American Secretary of State, served under George W. Bush.

Al-Qaeda: Terrorist group led by Osama Bin Laden responsible for the 9/11 attacks.

Osama Bin Laden: Leader of al-Qaeda; killed by U.S. forces in 2011.

Afghanistan: First U.S. military response after 9/11 to target the Taliban and al-Qaeda.

Taliban: Islamist group that controlled Afghanistan and sheltered al-Qaeda.

“Asymmetric” warfare: Conflict between nations or groups with unequal military strength (e.g., guerrilla warfare, terrorism).

USS Cole: U.S. Navy ship attacked by al-Qaeda in 2000 in Yemen.

World Trade Center: Twin towers in NYC destroyed during 9/11 terrorist attacks.

September 11, 2001: Coordinated terrorist attacks by al-Qaeda on U.S. soil.

USA Patriot Act: Expanded government powers for surveillance and anti-terrorism efforts.

Department of Homeland Security: Created to coordinate national efforts against terrorism.

Director of National Intelligence: Oversees all U.S. intelligence agencies, created post-9/11.

Saddam Hussein: Iraqi dictator overthrown during the Iraq War.

“Axis of Evil”: Bush’s term for Iraq, Iran, and North Korea, accusing them of supporting terrorism.

Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD): Nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons; used as justification for Iraq invasion.

Operation Iraqi Freedom: 2003 invasion to remove Saddam Hussein and search for WMDs.

“War of choice”: Term used by critics to describe the Iraq War as unnecessary.

“Regime change”: Policy aimed at replacing foreign governments (e.g., Iraq).

Abu Ghraib: Prison in Iraq where U.S. soldiers abused detainees, sparking outrage.

Kyoto Accord: International climate agreement the U.S. rejected under Bush.

Bush Doctrine: Foreign policy promoting preemptive strikes against threats to the U.S.

Unilateralist approach: Acting without support or cooperation of other countries.

No Child Left Behind: Education law aiming to improve student performance through testing and accountability.

Enron: Major corporation involved in a scandal of fraud and corporate corruption in the early 2000s.

Elections of 2004: Bush defeated Democrat John Kerry for a second term.

John Kerry: Democratic senator who ran against Bush in 2004.

Privatize Social Security: Bush’s proposal to allow private investment accounts for retirement, widely criticized and failed.

Hurricane Katrina: 2005 disaster that devastated New Orleans; government criticized for slow response.

John Roberts: Chief Justice of the Supreme Court appointed by Bush in 2005.

Samuel Alito: Conservative Supreme Court justice appointed by Bush in 2006.

Securitization: Bundling financial assets (like mortgages) into securities sold to investors.

Fannie Mae / Freddie Mac: Government-backed mortgage companies central to the housing crisis.

Lehman Brothers: Major investment bank whose collapse in 2008 triggered a financial panic.

Troubled Assets Relief Program (TARP): $700 billion bailout to stabilize the financial system during the 2008 crisis.

Great Recession: Severe global economic downturn from 2007 to 2009.

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (2009): Stimulus package passed under Obama to combat the recession.

Federal Reserve: U.S. central bank that played a major role in stabilizing the economy during the recession.

Dodd-Frank Act: Financial reform law increasing regulation of banks and Wall Street after the 2008 crash.

Consumer Financial Protection Bureau: Created by Dodd-Frank to protect consumers from financial abuse.

Hillary Clinton: Secretary of State under Obama, key figure in U.S. foreign policy.

Barack Obama: 44th U.S. president (2009–2017), focused on diplomacy, health care reform, and recovery from the Great Recession.

John McCain: Republican senator who lost to Obama in 2008.

Arab Spring: Wave of uprisings in the Middle East in 2010–2012 seeking democratic reforms.

ISIS: Terrorist group that emerged from Iraq and Syria after U.S. withdrawal.

Ukraine: Invaded by Russia in 2014, sparking international crisis.

Vladimir Putin: Russian president known for aggressive foreign policy and election interference.

Cuba: Obama reopened diplomatic relations with Cuba after decades of hostility.

Cyber attacks: Growing threat from foreign and domestic sources targeting U.S. infrastructure.

WikiLeaks: Website that released classified U.S. government documents, sparking global controversy.

Sonia Sotomayor: First Latina Supreme Court justice, appointed by Obama.

Elena Kagan: Supreme Court justice appointed by Obama.

Paris Agreement: International treaty to combat climate change, signed under Obama.

Every Student Succeeds Act: Replaced No Child Left Behind; gave states more control over education.

Affordable Care Act (“Obamacare”): Major health care reform expanding insurance coverage and reducing costs.

Tea Party: Conservative movement opposing taxes and government expansion; influential in 2010 elections.

Mitt Romney: Republican nominee who lost to Obama in 2012.

Sequestrations: Automatic government spending cuts triggered by failure to reach a budget deal.

“Brexit”: UK vote to leave the EU in 2016; part of a global rise in nationalism.

Undocumented immigrants: Central issue in Trump’s immigration policies.

Donald J. Trump: 45th U.S. president (2017–2021), known for populist rhetoric and controversial policies.

“Make America Great Again”: Trump’s campaign slogan focused on nationalism and economic growth.

Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (2017): Major tax reform law reducing corporate and individual tax rates.

Neil Gorsuch: Supreme Court justice appointed by Trump.

Brett Kavanaugh: Trump-appointed Supreme Court justice after a highly contentious confirmation.

Border wall: Expanded under Trump to reduce illegal immigration.

Robert Mueller: Special counsel who investigated Russian interference in the 2016 election.

Impeachment: Trump was impeached twice (2019 and 2021), but acquitted both times.

“America First”: Trump’s foreign policy doctrine emphasizing national interests over global cooperation.

United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA): Trade deal replacing NAFTA, negotiated under Trump.