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Encoding
The process of taking in information.
Storage
The process of maintaining information over time.
Retrieval
The process of bringing information back into awareness.
Explicit Memory
Knowledge of facts and experiences that can be consciously recalled.
Implicit Memory
Skills and conditioned responses that are recalled automatically.
Semantic Memory
General knowledge and facts.
Episodic Memory
Personal experiences and specific events.
Flashbulb Memory
Highly detailed and vivid memory of an emotionally significant event.
Long-Term Potentiation
The strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity.
Hippocampus
Brain structure that processes explicit memories.
Cerebellum
Brain structure involved in procedural memories.
Amygdala
Brain structure that enhances memory for emotionally charged events.
Basal Ganglia
Brain structure involved in motor skills and procedural memories.
Central Executive
Directs attention and processing in working memory.
Phonological Loop
Holds verbal and auditory information.
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Stores visual and spatial data.
Sensory Memory
Immediate, brief recording of sensory information.
Iconic Memory
Visual sensory memory.
Echoic Memory
Auditory sensory memory.
Short-Term Memory
Limited capacity memory that holds information briefly.
Working Memory
Actively processes information in short-term memory.
Long-Term Memory
Stores information over an extended period.
Deep Processing
Meaningful analysis leading to better memory retention.
Shallow Processing
Focus on surface features, leading to less durable memory.
Mnemonic Devices
Techniques to aid memory recall.
Chunking
Organizing items into familiar units.
Hierarchies
Organizing information into categories.
Spacing Effect
Distributing study sessions over time improves retention.
Primacy Effect
Tendency to recall the first items in a list.
Recency Effect
Tendency to recall the last items in a list.
Retrograde Amnesia
Inability to recall past memories.
Anterograde Amnesia
Inability to form new memories.
Context-Dependent Memory
Memory retrieval is more effective in the same context as when encoded.
Mood-Congruent Memory
Memory retrieval is more effective in the same mood as when encoded.
Proactive Interference
Old information hinders the recall of new information.
Retroactive Interference
New information hinders the recall of old information.
Misinformation Effect
Memory distortion due to misleading information introduced after an event.
Spearman
Proposed intelligence as a single, general factor (g).
CHC Theory
Expands intelligence into multiple broad and narrow abilities.
Sternberg
Developed the Triarchic Theory of Analytical, Creative, and Practical Intelligence.
Gardner
Proposed the Theory of Multiple Intelligences including linguistic and spatial abilities.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
Measure of intelligence comparing mental age with chronological age.
Standardization
Consistent procedures for administering tests.
Reliability
Consistency of test results.
Validity
The test’s ability to measure what it’s supposed to measure.
Factor Analysis
Statistical method to identify clusters of related abilities.
Flynn Effect
Gradual increase in average IQ scores over generations.
Fixed Mindset
Belief that abilities are innate and unchangeable.
Growth Mindset
Belief that abilities can be developed through effort and learning.
Bottom-Up Processing
Perception driven by sensory input.
Top-Down Processing
Perception influenced by prior knowledge and expectations.
Schema
Mental frameworks that influence perception.
Gestalt Principles
Principles that describe how we perceive whole objects.
Closure
Filling in gaps to see a whole object.
Inattentional Blindness
Missing unexpected items when attention is focused elsewhere.
Change Blindness
Failure to notice changes in a visual scene.
Binocular Depth Cues
Depth cues that rely on two eyes.
Monocular Depth Cues
Depth cues that rely on one eye.
Stroboscopic Movement
Illusion of motion from rapidly changing images.
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging likelihood by comparing to existing prototypes.
Availability Heuristic
Estimating likelihood based on readily available memories.
Mental Set
Tendency to approach problems in a familiar way.
Priming
Exposure to a stimulus influences responses to subsequent stimuli.
Framing
How an issue is presented can influence decisions.
Gambler’s Fallacy
Mistaken beliefs about probability.
Sunk-Cost Fallacy
Tendency to continue an endeavor due to past investments.
Divergent Thinking
Creative thinking that generates multiple ideas.
Convergent Thinking
Focuses on generating a single correct solution.
Independent Variables
Variables manipulated in an experiment.
Dependent Variables
Variables measured in an experiment.
Confounding Variables
Factors that may affect the results of an experiment.
Random Assignment
Ensuring equal chance of participants being in any group.
Operational Definitions
Clear definitions of variables for replication in studies.
Control Group
Group that receives no treatment in an experiment.
Experimental Group
Group that receives treatment in an experiment.
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Committee ensuring ethical standards in research.
Informed Consent
Participants are informed about the study and agree to participate.
Protection from Harm
Ensuring participant safety and minimizing risks.
Debriefing
Explaining the purpose and details of the study to participants afterward.
Memory Encoding
The process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.
Memory Consolidation
The process by which encoded information is strengthened and transformed into long-term memory.
Interference Theory
The theory that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with and disrupt each other.
Rehearsal
The cognitive process of repeatedly practicing or going over information to enhance memory retention.
State-Dependent Memory
The phenomenon where memory retrieval is more effective when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as when the memory was formed.
Anxiety and Memory
Anxiety can impact memory performance, often leading to difficulties in retrieval.
Semantic Encoding
The encoding of sensory input that has particular meaning or significance.
Retroactive Facilitation
When new information improves the recall of previously learned information.
Source Amnesia
The inability to remember where or how one acquired certain information.
Spearman
Proposed intelligence as a single, general factor (g).
CHC Theory
Expands intelligence into multiple broad and narrow abilities.
Sternberg
Developed the Triarchic Theory of Analytical, Creative, and Practical Intelligence.
Gardner
Proposed the Theory of Multiple Intelligences including linguistic and spatial abilities.