Memory

• Encoding, Storage, Retrieval: The processes by which information is taken in (encoding), maintained over time (storage), and brought back into awareness (retrieval).

• Explicit (Declarative) vs. Implicit (Procedural) Memory:

  • Explicit Memory: Knowledge of facts and experiences that one can consciously recall (e.g., names, events).

  • Implicit Memory: Skills and conditioned responses that are recalled automatically (e.g., riding a bike).

• Semantic vs. Episodic Memory:

  • Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts (e.g., capital cities).

  • Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and specific events (e.g., a birthday party).

• Flashbulb Memory: Highly detailed and vivid memory of an emotionally significant event.

• Biological Processes & Memory:

  • Long-Term Potentiation: The strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity, aiding long-term memory formation.

  • Brain Structures:

    • Hippocampus: Processes explicit memories.

    • Cerebellum: Plays a role in procedural memories.

    • Amygdala: Enhances memory for emotionally charged events.

    • Basal Ganglia: Involved in motor skills and procedural memories.

• Working Memory:

  • Central Executive: Directs attention and processing in working memory.

  • Phonological Loop: Holds verbal and auditory information.

  • Visuospatial Sketchpad: Stores visual and spatial data.

• Multi-Store Memory:

  • Sensory Memory: Immediate, brief recording of sensory information.

    • Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory.

    • Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory.

  • Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity (7±2 items); holds information briefly.

  • Working Memory: Actively processes information in short-term memory.

  • Long-Term Memory: Stores information over a long period.

• Deep vs. Shallow Processing:

  • Deep Processing: Meaningful analysis, leading to better memory retention.

  • Shallow Processing: Focus on surface features, less durable memory………….

• Mnemonic Devices, Chunking, Hierarchies, Spacing Effect:

  • Mnemonic Devices: Techniques to aid memory recall (e.g., acronyms).

  • Chunking: Organizing items into familiar units.

  • Hierarchies: Organizing information into categories.

  • Spacing Effect: Distributing study sessions over time improves retention.

• Serial Positioning (Recency vs. Primacy Effect): Tendency to recall the first (primacy) and last (recency) items in a list.

• Amnesia:

  • Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall past memories.

  • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories.

• Context-Dependent & Mood-Congruent Memory: Memory retrieval is more effective when in the same context or mood as when the memory was encoded.

• Types of Interference:

  • Proactive Interference: Old information hinders the recall of new information.

  • Retroactive Interference: New information hinders the recall of old information.

• Misinformation Effect: Memory distortion due to misleading information introduced after an event.

Intelligence

• General Abilities Theories (Spearman, CHC):

  • Spearman: Intelligence as a single, general factor (g).

  • CHC Theory: Expands intelligence into multiple broad and narrow abilities.

• Multiple Abilities Theories (Sternberg, Gardner):

  • Sternberg: Triarchic Theory of Analytical, Creative, and Practical Intelligence.

  • Gardner: Theory of Multiple Intelligences, including linguistic, spatial, and interpersonal abilities.

• Intelligence Quotient (IQ), Mental Age: IQ is a measure of intelligence calculated by comparing mental age with chronological age.

• Intelligence Tests (WAIS, Weschler, Stanford-Binet): Tests measuring intellectual potential through various verbal and performance tasks.

• Psychometric Principles:

  • Standardization: Consistent procedures for administering tests.

  • Reliability: Consistency of test results.

  • Validity: The test’s ability to measure what it’s supposed to measure.

  • Factor Analysis: A statistical method to identify clusters of related abilities.

  • Flynn Effect: Gradual increase in average IQ scores over generations.

• Socioculturally Responsive Tests, Stereotype Threat, Sociocultural Biases: Consideration of cultural differences and biases in testing to ensure fair assessment.

• Fixed vs. Growth Mindset:

  • Fixed Mindset: Belief that abilities are innate and unchangeable.

  • Growth Mindset: Belief that abilities can be developed through effort and learning.

Perception

• Bottom-Up vs. Top-Down Processing:

  • Bottom-Up: Perception driven by sensory input.

  • Top-Down: Perception influenced by prior knowledge and expectations.

• Internal Factors Influencing Perception (Schema & Perceptual Set): Mental frameworks and readiness to perceive certain stimuli based on expectations.

• External Factors Influencing Perception (Contexts, Experiences, Expectations): Context and prior experiences affect perception.

• Gestalt Principles:

  • Closure: Filling in gaps to see a whole object.

  • Figure-Ground: Differentiating an object from its background.

  • Proximity & Similarity: Grouping objects based on closeness and similarity.

• Attention:

  • Inattentional Blindness: Missing unexpected items when attention is focused elsewhere.

  • Change Blindness: Failure to notice changes in a visual scene.

• Binocular vs. Monocular Depth Cues: Visual cues for depth that rely on two eyes (binocular) or one eye (monocular).

• Motion Perception:

  • Stroboscopic Movement: Illusion of motion from rapidly changing images.

  • Phi Phenomenon: Perceived motion between flashing lights.

  • Autokinetic Effect: Perceived motion in a stationary object due to visual fixation.

• Visual Perceptual Constancies & Apparent Movement: Perception of objects as stable despite changes in sensory input.

Thinking/Problem-Solving

• Concepts & Prototypes: Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people; prototypes are best examples within a concept.

• Heuristics:

  • Representativeness Heuristic: Judging likelihood by comparing to existing prototypes.

  • Availability Heuristic: Estimating likelihood based on readily available memories.

• Decision-Making:

  • Mental Set: Tendency to approach problems in a familiar way.

  • Priming: Exposure to a stimulus influences responses to subsequent stimuli.

  • Framing: How an issue is presented can influence decisions.

• Gambler’s Fallacy & Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Mistaken beliefs about probability and tendency to continue an endeavor due to past investments.

• Divergent vs. Convergent Thinking: Divergent involves creative ideas; convergent focuses on single, correct solutions.

Science Practices

• Experimental Methods:

  • Independent & Dependent Variables: Variables manipulated vs. measured in an experiment.

  • Confounding Variables: Factors that may affect results.

  • Random Assignment: Ensuring each participant has an equal chance of being in any group.

• Operational Definitions: Clear definitions of variables for replication.

• Sample Population & Generalizability: Representative group selected to apply findings to a larger population.

• Control Group & Experimental Group: Control group receives no treatment, while the experimental group does, allowing for comparison.

Ethical Procedures

• Institutional Review Board (IRB): Committee ensuring ethical standards in research.

• Informed Consent: Participants are informed about the study and agree to participate.

• Protection from Harm: Ensuring participant safety and minimizing risks.

• Debriefing: Explaining the purpose and details of the study to participants afterward.