unit 3 (development and learning)

stability and change

an examination of traits, behaviors, and personalities to determine whether they remain constant throughout life, or if they change

nature and nurtue

the extent to which the environment or genetics of an individual influence a person’s development

continuous development

the perspective that development is a gradual and ongoing process, with changes occurring long periods of time

discontinuous development

the perspective that development occurs in stages, with lifetime milestones occurring at specific points in life

cross-sectional research

a method of research that involves studying different age groups at the same time

longitudinal

a method of research that involves studying the same group of people, or sample size, or a long period of time

teratogens

harmful substances that can disrupt fetal development

examples: alcohol, drugs, and other toxins

fetal alcohol syndrome

a range of physical, cognitive, and behavioral problems that can result in children, as a result of prenatal exposure to alcohol

maternal illness

health conditions that can impact a woman’s health during pregnancy, childbirth, or after giving birth, and thereby influencing prenatal development

genetic mutations

mutations in a fetus's genes that can lead to developmental disorders or disabilities

hormonal imbalance

an imbalance in hormones that can lead to atypical brain development for fetuses, which can affect behavior and cognitive abilities

environmental factors

factors that, when exposed to, can harm fetal development

examples: maternal stress, malnutrition, and pollutants

infant reflexes

involuntary movements present in newborns and infants that assist with survival, and thus indicate on-track physical and psychological development in infancy

rooting reflex

a reflex that occurs when a baby’s cheek is gently stroked, resulting in the baby’s head turning in that direction with their mouth open

maturation

the concept of biological growth occurring in an orderly sequences, but the timing of the developmental sequence can vary from individual to individual

gross motor skills

larger movements, such as crawling and walking, that develop as a child develops and learns to navigate their environment

fine motor skills

smaller movements, such as holding objects, that develop as a child develops and engages in species tasks

visual cliff

a research experiment that determined that infants early in life can perceive depth, or have developed depth perception

critical period

a time period when a particular skill or behavior must be required; if not obtained during this time period, it’s possible that the skill may not be easily developed, or developed at all, later in life

sensitive period

a time period during which it is optimal to learn a certain skill, like language, because the brain is primed to learn that skill

puberty

the period of time when a child’s body begins its transition into an adult body, during adolescence; can bring about hormonal changes, emotional swings, and various physical changes

primary sex characteristics

physical traits that are directly related to the reproductive system and the ability to reproduce

menarche

the first time that a person menstruates

spermarche

the first time that a person ejaculates

secondary sex characteristics

physical traits that develop in males and females, but aren’t directly involved in reproduction

examples: deepening of voices (male) and widening of hips (female)

adulthood

the general leveling off of various changes, including hormonal and physical changes, and then a decline in reproductive ability, mobility, flexibility, reaction time, and visual and sensory acuity

menopause

the end of a woman’s menstrual cycle and marks the end of her ability to conceive

assimiltation

placing new information into an existing schema, and thus doesn’t alter the schema

accommodation

changing or modifying a schema to incorporate new information

piaget’s stages of cognitive development

builds on the idea of cognitive development occurring in continuous and discontinuous stages; includes the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage

sensorimotor stage

the stage marked by the gradual development of object permanence

occurs from infancy to toddlerhood

object permanence

the ability for a child to understand that an object exists even when it is out of sight

preoperational stage

the stage marked by the development of symbolic thinking, pretend play, and the theory of the mind in children, as well as the inability to understand the concepts of conservation and reversibility and the tendency to display animism and egocentrism

occurs from age 2 until age 6 or age 7

conservation

the principle that quantity remains the same, despite possible changes in shape

symbolic thinking

the ability to use symbols to represent objects, ideas, and concepts that aren’t present in the current environment

pretend play

the use of certain objects to represent other objects, ideas, or concepts; can also be considered as imaginative play, where children are deviating from the reality of a situation

theory of mind

the ability to understand that a person’s thoughts, beliefs, and desires may differ from one’s own thoughts, beliefs, and desires

animism

a belief in children that inanimate objects are alive or have lifelike feelings and motivations

egocentrism

the inability for a child to perceive ideas, objects, or concepts from another’s perspective

concrete operational stage

the stage during which children become able to think logically, understand the concepts of conservation and reversibility, and perceive the world in a straightforward way, despite struggles in thinking systematically

occurs from about age 7 to age 12

formal operational stage

the stage during which people gain the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically, however not all individuals can achieve this stage of development

occurs from about age 12 into adulthood

sociocultural theory

the theory that children are social learners, and thus learn through both experience and scaffolding by other people within specific contexts

formulated by Vygotsky

scaffolding

support and guidance given to an individual in order to understand unfamiliar concepts, rather than giving the answer immedieately

zone of proximal development

tasks that can be done or concepts understood, if an individual has assistance from another individual

crystallized intelligence

accumulated knowledge, gained over a lifetime of experience and education, that is reflected in facts and skills

fluid intelligence

an individual’s ability to think abstractly and reason quickly, which tends to wane as an individual ages

dementia

a broad term that refers to cognitive disorders that significantly impair memory, reasoning, or other mental capabilities

language

a shared system of symbols that represent objects, actions, and ideas; can be spoken words, written text, and gestures, that include certain rules and can produce an infinite number of ideas

phonemes

the smallest distinct units of sound in a language

morphemes

the smallest units of meaning in a language, containing at least 2 phonemes

semantics

the meaning of words and sentences, involving the understand of how words and phrases relate to each other and how context influences meaning

grammar

a set of rules that a language follows, allowing people to effectively communicate and understand the meaning of various sentences

syntax

the rules that are used to order a sentence

nonverbal manual gestures

used to communicate and develop formal language, and it is typically shared across all cultures and languages

cooing stage

the use of symbol sounds to convey messages, typically used by infants

babbling stage

the use of repetitive consonant-vowel combinations to convey messages, typically used by children around 6 to 8 months

one-word stage

the usage of a single word to communicate meaning, often referring to different objects, people, or individual needs, typically used by children around 8 to 18 months

telegraphic speech stage

the connection of a few words and phrases to convey messages and meanings, typically used by children around 18 to 24 months

overgeneralization

the application of a general rule of a language in too broad of a manner

ecological systems theory

an exploration of how an individual’s social environment influences their development

includes: the microsystem, mesosystem, ecosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem

microsystem

the most immediate social environment, consisting of groups that have direct contact with an individual

example: a child’s friends

mesosystem

the relationships between groups within the microsystem and its influence on the child’s development

example: interactions between a child’s teacher and their parents

exosystem

the indirect factors that affect an individual’s life, despite the individual not being directly involved

example: a parent’s workplace

macrosystem

the broader cultural, social, and economic factors that shape the social environment of an individual, which affects both the individual and those around them

chronosystem

refers to time, including an individual’s stage of life and historical context in which they live, which affects an individuals development

authoritarian parenting style

a parenting style in which parents are strict, have high expectations, and enforce rules without much flexibility

permissive parenting style

a parenting style in which parents are lenient, with loose rules, and often don’t demand much from their child

negligent parenting style

a parenting style in which parents are essentially absent from their child’s life

authoritative parenting style

a parenting style in which parents set clear expectations and rules for their child, however they explain each rule’s reasoning as the child ages and allow for the child to convey their thoughts and feelings

secure attachment

an attachment that features children feeling safe and supported by their parent or caregiver

avoidant attachment

an attachment that features children that tend to avoid or ignore their parent or caregiver, typically showing little emotion when their parent leaves them

anxious attachment

an attachment that features children that tend to be overly dependent on their parent or caregiver, typically showing extreme distress when separated

disorganized attachment

an attachment that results from children’s experiences with inconsistent or frightening caregiving

temperament

a child’s emotional reactivity and intensity, which can directly affect the type of attachment that they may form with a parent or caregiver

separation anxiety

a heightened feeling of anxiety or fear when a child is taken away from a caregiver, or in the presence of a stranger

parallel play

a phenomenon where children play alongside each other without the activities of nearby children influencing their own activities

imaginary audience

a part of adolescent social-emotional development, during which an individual believes that they are under constant, close observation by those around them

personal fable

a belief by adolescents that their experiences are wholly unique, and thus believe that certain challenges or setbacks in life won’t happen to them or lead them to believe that no other individual can understand them

social clock

the societal expectations about when major life events should happen

emerging adult

a period of time in an individuals mid-twenties when they typically explore different life opportunities

adverse childhood experiences

traumatic or challenging events that occur during childhood, which can effect the way in which people form relationships

stages of psychosocial development

consists of 8 stages that are centered around a conflict that an individual goes through

developed by erik erikson

trust vs. mistrust

the first stage of the stages of psychosocial development, during which infants learn to either trust their caregiver or form a sense of mistrust with their caregiver

autonomy vs. shame and doubt

the second stage of the stages of psychosocial development, during which toddlers start to explore their independence

initiative vs. guilt

the third stage of the stages of psychosocial development, during which a sense of purpose and confidence develops in preschoolers, depending on the positive reinforcement given to a child

industry vs. inferiority

the fourth stage of the stages of psychosocial development, during which children make their own decisions and develop skills that promote a sense of industry, but without support it can lead to feelings of inferiority

identity vs. role confusion

the fifth stage of the stages of psychosocial development, during which an adolescent explores their identity and personal values, but if individuals struggle to form a self identity it can lead them to question their role in life

intimacy vs. isolation

the sixth stage of the stages of psychosocial development, during which early adults who see success in this stage often experience strong relationships, commitment and purpose, whereas failure can lead to feelings of loneliness

generativity vs. stagnation

the seventh stage of the stages of psychosocial development, during which middle-aged adults focus on their work or hobbies that contribute to their community

integrity vs. despair

the eighth stage of the stages of psychosocial development, during which odder-aged individuals will reflect on their lives, with individuals that lack regret experiencing a sense of fulfillment

foreclosure

a type of identity development that features a strong commitment to a certain identity, despite not having explored other options

diffusion

a type of identity development that features a lack of commitment to a certain identity, accompanied with a lack of exploration of an possible identities

moratorium

a type of identity development that features active exploration of identity and possible options, despite not being committed to a particular identity

achievement

a type of identity development that features a commitment to an identity, accompanied with a previous exploration of possible identities

classical conditioning

the association of two or more stimuli together, with one stimuli triggering a behavior in anticipation of the second stimuli; this type of learning often occurs unconsciously

acquisition

the process of associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus

neutral simulus

a stimulus that elicits no response from a subject

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus that naturally triggers a response, without any learning involved, and occurs automatically

conditioned stimulus

a previously neutral stimulus that is elicits a conditioned response, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned, stimulus