final q

What are the levels of organization in biological systems?

Chemical, Cellular, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, Organismal.

What are the requirements of life?

Nutrients, Oxygen, Water, Temperature, Pressure.

Metabolism

Responsiveness

Movement

Growth

Differentiation

Reproduction

Define homeostasis.

The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

What are the three components of a feedback system?

receptor, Control Center, Effector.

negative vs. positive feedback systems

Negative feedback systems reduce changes, while positive feedback systems amplify them. They are essential for maintaining homeostasis.

What is the difference between molecules and compounds?

Molecules are two or more atoms chemically bonded together, compounds are substances formed from two or more different elements.

what is a mixture

combination of elements or compounds that are physically blended together but not bound by chemical bonds

What are the three types of mixtures?

Solutions, Colloids, Suspensions.

Know directional terminology including different types of planes.

Directional terminology refers to the terms used to describe the locations and positions of structures in relation to one another in the body, including types of planes such as sagittal, frontal, and transverse.

What are the different types of body cavities?

Ventral (thoracic, abdominopelvic) and dorsal (cranial, spinalvertebral).

What are the different types of chemical bonds?

Ionic, Covalent, Hydrogen.

What are the different types of chemical reactions?

, oxidation-reductionSynthesis, Decomposition, exchange reaction, reversible

What are the four types of organic molecules?

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids.

What are the characteristics of lipids?

Hydrophobic, store energy, and serve as structural components.

What are the four classes/family of lipids?

Fatty acids

Triglycerides

Phospholipids

Steroids

What are the functions of proteins?

Enzymatic activity, Structural support, Signaling, Transport.

structure of body cells, act as enzymes, muscular contraction, antibodies

proteins structure and shapes?

Proteins have diverse structures and shapes, including primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures, which determine their specific functions in biological processes.

What are proteins composed of?

Amino acids.

What are the different types of carbohydrates?

Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides.

What are DNA and RNA?

DNA stores genetic information, RNA translates it into proteins.

What makes up a nucleotide?

Sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base.

17. Know the structural and functional characteristics of mitochondria, ribosomes, rER, sER, golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, the cytoskeleton and the nucleus

Mitochondria produce energy; ribosomes synthesize proteins; rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) processes proteins; smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sER) synthesizes lipids; Golgi complex modifies and packages proteins; lysosomes digest waste; peroxisomes detoxify substances; the cytoskeleton provides structure; the nucleus contains genetic material.

Describe the processes of passive transport, active transport, endocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis), and exocytosis.

Passive transport moves substances without energy; active transport requires energy to move substances against their gradient; endocytosis engulfs materials, with phagocytosis targeting solids and pinocytosis targeting liquids; exocytosis expels materials from the cell.

What is an isotonic hypertonic and hypotonic solution?

Isotonic solutions have equal solute concentrations compared to the cell, hypertonic solutions have higher solute concentrations, causing cells to shrink, and hypotonic solutions have lower solute concentrations, causing cells to swell.

Know the different stages of mitosis.

Mitosis consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, processes that ensure equal distribution of chromosomes to daughter cells.

What is transcription?

The process by which RNA is synthesized from a DNA template.

What is transcription and translation? What does each produce? Where does each take place?

Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template, occurring in the nucleus, while translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from mRNA, taking place in the cytoplasm.

Where are proteins synthesized?

Ribosomes.

Four types of tissues: epithelium, connective tissue, cartilage, muscle. What are the different types of each. Where can you find them? For example where can you

find elastic cartilage or dense regular fibrous connective tissue?

The four types of tissues in the body are epithelium, connective tissue, muscle, and nervous tissue. Each type has various subcategories, such as simple squamous epithelium, blood (a type of connective tissue), and skeletal muscle, found in specific locations like the lining of blood vessels or attached to bones.

Know the different types of serous membranes

and their locations, such as pleura (lungs), peritoneum (abdominal cavity), and pericardium (heart).

Abdominopelvic regions and quadrants. What organs can you find in each region?

The abdominopelvic cavity is divided into nine regions (like the right upper quadrant) and four quadrants (like the left lower quadrant), containing organs such as the liver, stomach, intestines, and bladder.

Structure of atoms, subatomic particles, atomic mass, atomic number

Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons, with atomic mass defined by the total number of protons and neutrons, while atomic number indicates the number of protons in the nucleus.

Know the different layers of the epidermis and be able to describe each layer.

The epidermis consists of five layers: stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale, each with distinct functions and characteristics. The stratum corneum provides a tough barrier, the stratum lucidum is found only in thick skin, the stratum granulosum aids in keratinization, the stratum spinosum provides strength and flexibility, and the stratum basale is where new cells are generated.

What are the different types of cells that make up the epidermis. HINT: There are 4 main types of cells. What are their functions? Which type make up 90% of cells?

The epidermis is primarily composed of keratinocytes, which make up about 90% of the cells, as well as melanocytes that produce pigment, Langerhans cells that act as immune responders, and Merkel cells that function in sensation.

Different regions of the dermis. What are they?

The dermis is divided into two main regions: the papillary dermis, which contains loose connective tissue and supplies nutrients to the epidermis, and the reticular dermis, which is denser and provides strength and elasticity to the skin.

How is epithelium classified? two ways

Epithelium is classified by the number of cell layers (simple or stratified) and the shape of the cells (squamous, cuboidal, or columnar). This classification helps determine the function and location of the epithelial tissue.

Types of cell junctions. Name them and what is their function?

Cell junctions are classified into three main types: tight junctions, which prevent leakage of materials between cells; adherens junctions, which provide mechanical stability by anchoring cells together; and gap junctions, which allow for communication and the transfer of ions and small molecules between adjacent cells.

Know the different parts of the nail. Where can they be found on the nail and what are their functions?

The nail consists of several parts including the nail plate (the visible hard part), nail bed (the skin beneath the nail plate), cuticle (the tissue at the base of the nail), and lunula (the crescent-shaped area at the base of the nail. These parts protect the tips of fingers and toes and aid in sensory perception.

What gland secretes oil in hair follicles?

Sebaceous gland

Know the different types of burns. How are they described?

a. 1ST DEGREE Damaged the epidermis

b. 2ND DEGREE Damaged epidermis and dermis

c. 3RD DEGREE Damaged EpIDERMIS DERMIS , HYPODERMIS

What are the different types of cells that make up compact bone? What is the function of each of these cell types? What is the basic unit of compact bone and what structures can you find within compact bone? For example, which bone cell builds the matrix and which cell breaks bone down? What is the periosteum? Remember the lab portion when you study this part.

Compact bone is made up of osteoblasts (build the matrix), osteoclasts (break down bone), and osteocytes (maintain bone tissue). The basic unit of compact bone is the osteon, which contains structures like Haversian canals and lamellae. The periosteum is a dense layer of connective tissue that surrounds the bone, providing protection and aiding in bone growth and repair.

What is the primary function of the peroxisome?

To detoxify harmful substances.

What is the basic unit of compact bone?

Osteon.

What are osteoblasts?

Bone-building cells.

What are osteoclasts?

Bone-resorbing cells.

What is the periosteum?

A dense layer of vascular connective tissue enveloping the bones.

What is the main structure of spongy bone?

Trabeculae.

What is intramembranous ossification?

Bone formation directly from mesenchymal tissue.

FLAT BONES

mesenchymal cells-> osteoprogenitor -> osteoblasts -> osteocytes

What is endochondral ossification?

Bone formation from a cartilage template. LONG BONES

What are the different regions of a long bone?

Diaphysis, Epiphysis, Metaphysis.

What types of connective tissue are found in bones?

Adipose, Reticular, Dense connective.

How are bones classified by shape?

Long, Short, Flat, Irregular.

What is appositional growth?

Bone growth by width.

What is interstitial growth?

Bone growth by length.

What is the order of bone cell growth?

Osteogenic cells, Osteoblasts, Osteocytes, Osteoclasts.

How can you recognize thoracic vertebrae?

Presence of rib facets.

How many curves are in the adult vertebral column?

Four: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral.

Which 2 carpal bones articulate with the radius

The scaphoid and lunate bones articulate with the radius, allowing for wrist movement.

Which bone(s) makes up your elbow and your ankle?

The elbow is formed by the humerus, radius, and ulna, while the ankle consists of the tibia, fibula, and talus.

Which bone structure articulates with the atlas?

The occipital condyles of the skull.

Which bones make up the thoracic cage

The thoracic cage is made up of the ribs, sternum, and thoracic vertebrae.

The wrist is an example of what type of joint? Be specific.

The wrist is a complex joint that primarily functions as a synovial joint, specifically a condyloid joint, allowing for movement in multiple directions.

What are bursae?

Fluid-filled sacs that reduce friction in joints.

Length-tension relationship curve. Know definition

The length-tension relationship curve describes the relationship between the length of a muscle and its ability to generate force. It illustrates how optimal muscle length allows for maximum tension production.

What is the site where a somatic motor neuron releases acetylcholine to stimulate a skeletal muscle fiber?

The neuromuscular junction, where the motor neuron communicates with the muscle fiber to initiate contraction.

Anatomy of the neuromuscular junction. This includes: synapse, synaptic cleft, neurotransmitters, synaptic end bulbs, synaptic vesicles, motor end plate, acetylcholine receptors. Know definitions.

The neuromuscular junction is the anatomical structure where a motor neuron connects to a skeletal muscle fiber, facilitating communication through the release of neurotransmitters like acetylcholine. Key components include the synapse, synaptic cleft, synaptic vesicles, motor end plate, and acetylcholine receptors, all crucial for muscle contraction.

3 types of skeletal muscle fibers (SO, FOG, FG). Color, contracts fast or slow, and function of each.

Skeletal muscle fibers are classified into three types: Type I (Slow Oxidative, red color, slow contraction, endurance), Type IIa (Fast Oxidative Glycolytic, pink color, fast contraction, moderate endurance), and Type IIb (Fast Glycolytic, white color, fast contraction, high power but low endurance).

67. 4 parts of twitch contraction. (latent period, contraction period, relaxation period, refractory period). Just know definitions provided on slides.

Twitch contraction involves four distinct phases: the latent period, where no visible contraction occurs; the contraction period, where muscle tension increases; the relaxation period, where tension decreases; and the refractory period, during which the muscle cannot respond to further stimulation.

What do epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium surround?

Epimysium surrounds the entire muscle, perimysium surrounds fascicles, endomysium surrounds individual muscle fibers.

What are myoblasts?

Muscle precursor cells.

What is the definition of sarcomeres?

The basic contractile unit of muscle fiber.

What are the properties of muscle tissue?

Excitability, Contractibility, Extensibility, Elasticity.

What is the role of tropomyosin and troponin?

Regulate muscle contraction by controlling the binding of myosin to actin.

During muscle contraction, which ion is released by the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

Calcium ions.

What is the length-tension relationship?

The relationship between muscle length and the force of contraction.

What cells make up the blood-brain barrier?

endothelial cells

During olfactory transduction, what causes depolarizing generator potential?

The binding of odor molecules to receptors on olfactory sensory neurons.

What is the neuromuscular junction?

The point where a motor neuron connects with a muscle fiber.

What are motor end plates?

Specialized regions on muscle fibers where neurotransmitters bind.

What are the three types of skeletal muscle fibers?

Slow oxidative (SO), Fast oxidative glycolytic (FOG), Fast glycolytic (FG).

What are the four parts of twitch contraction?

Latent period, Contraction period, Relaxation period, Refractory period.

What is the difference between isotonic and isometric contractions?

Isotonic contractions change muscle length; isometric contractions do not.

What are the three types of lever systems?

First class, Second class, Third class.

What is a prime mover?

The main muscle responsible for moving a particular joint.

What are the four neuroglial cells of the CNS?

Astrocytes, Microglia, Oligodendrocytes, Ependymal cells.

Which neuroglial cell is the most numerous in the CNS?

Astrocytes.

Which neuroglial cells form the myelin sheath in the CNS?

Oligodendrocytes.

Which neuroglial cells form the myelin sheath in the PNS?

Schwann cells.

What is the synapse?

The junction between two neurons.

What does neurolemma refer to?

The thin sheath around a nerve axon.

What occurs during the depolarizing phase?

Sodium channels open, sodium ions flow into the cell.

What occurs during the repolarizing phase?

Potassium channels open, potassium ions flow out of the cell.

What is the role of the voluntary nervous system?

Control of skeletal muscle.

What is the first step in sound transmission through the ear?

Sound waves strike the eardrum.

What are the parts of the eye?

Cornea, Lens, Retina, Iris, Pupil.

What cells make up the blood-brain barrier?

Endothelial cells, Astrocytes.

Where does the cervical plexus supply nerves to?

The neck and diaphragm.

Where does the brachial plexus supply nerves to?

The shoulders and upper limbs.

Where does the lumbar plexus supply nerves to?

The lower back and front of the legs.