AP Psychology Chapter 1

Forgetting Curve

A graph showing how memory retention declines over time without reinforcement

Proactive Interference

When previously learned information disrupts the recall of newer information

Retroactive Interference

When newly learned information interferes with the recall of older information

Encoding Failure

When information is not effectively processed into long-term memory

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

A temporary inability to retrieve a known word or fact

Repression

An unconscious defense mechanism that blocks distressing memories from awareness

Source Amnesia

Inability to recall the origin of a known piece of information

Misinformation Effect

Memory distortion caused by exposure to misleading information after an event

Constructive Memory

A memory that is formed by combining actual memories with existing knowledge and expectations

Explicit Memory

Conscious recollection of facts and events

Episodic Memory

Memory of specific personal experiences including time and place

Semantic Memory

Memory of general facts concepts and meanings not tied to personal experience

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory of skills and procedures

Procedural Memory

Memory for performing tasks such as riding a bike or typing

Prospective Memory

Remembering to carry out intended actions in the future

Long-Term Potentiation

The long-lasting strengthening of synapses that enhances signal transmission between neurons

Working Memory Model

A theory that describes short-term memory as a system with multiple components for processing information

Working Memory

A limited capacity system for temporarily holding and manipulating information

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids that use associations patterns or imagery to improve recall

Categorization

The mental process of grouping similar items based on shared characteristics

Memory Consolidation

The process by which short-term memories are stabilized into long-term storage

Method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating information with specific physical locations

Hierarchy

A structured organization of information from broad concepts to specific details

Massed Practice

Studying material intensively in a short period without breaks

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items

Primacy Effect

Enhanced recall of items at the beginning of a list due to more rehearsal time

Chunking

Combining individual pieces of information into larger meaningful units

Spacing Effect

Improved memory retention when learning is spaced out over time

Distributed Practice

Learning that is spread out over multiple sessions rather than crammed into one

Recency Effect

Improved recall of the most recent items in a list due to their presence in short-term memory

Recall

Retrieving information from memory without external cues

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information when presented with it

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information from memory

Context-dependent memory

Improved recall when the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding

State-dependent memory

Better memory retrieval when one's internal state matches the state during encoding

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall memories that are consistent with one's current mood

Testing effect

Enhanced memory performance resulting from repeated retrieval practice

Metacognition

Awareness and regulation of one's own thinking and learning processes

Central Executive

The component of working memory that directs attention and coordinates other subsystems

Phonological Loop

A subsystem of working memory that processes verbal and auditory information

Visuospatial sketchpad

A subsystem of working memory that handles visual and spatial information

Multi-Store Model

A model that describes memory as a flow through sensory short-term and long-term stores

Sensory Memory

A brief initial storage of sensory information from the environment

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory that lasts for a fraction of a second

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory that lasts for a few seconds

Short-term memory

A temporary storage system that holds a limited amount of information for a short duration

Long-term memory

A relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

Automatic Processing

Encoding of information without conscious effort or awareness

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and deliberate effort

Encoding

The process of converting sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time

Levels of Processing Model

A theory that suggests memory retention depends on the depth of processing

Structural Processing

Encoding based on the physical appearance or structure of information

Phonemic Processing

Encoding based on the sound of words or information

Semantic Processing

Encoding based on the meaning of information and its relation to existing knowledge

Rehearsal

The process of mentally repeating information to keep it active in memory or transfer it to long-term storage

Maintenance rehearsal

Repetition of information without adding meaning used to keep it in short-term memory

Elaborative rehearsal

Linking new information to existing knowledge to enhance long-term memory storage

Autobiographical memory

Memory system that stores personal life events and self-related information

Superior autobiographical memory

A rare ability to recall nearly every detail of one's personal life with extreme accuracy

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of memories that occurred before a brain injury or trauma

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new long-term memories after a brain injury while past memories remain intact

Alzheimer's Disease

A progressive brain disorder that causes memory loss confusion and cognitive decline

Infantile amnesia

The inability to recall memories from early childhood typically before age three