Exam #4 Review Outline

Flashcards for Exam #4 Review

Urinary System Functions

Maintains pH, water balance, electrolyte concentrations, nutrient conservation, and waste excretion in the blood.

Major Waste Products

Three major waste products are urea, creatinine, and uric acid.

Renal Corpuscle Filtration

Facilitates filtration due to filtration barriers and diameter differences in afferent and efferent arterioles.

Glomerular Filtration Control

Influences glomerular filtration through autoregulation, hormone regulation (renin-angiotensin-aldosterone and natriuretic peptides), and autonomic regulation.

Renal Function Concepts

Renal threshold, transport maximum, and milliosmoles are crucial for interpreting renal function.

Nephron and Collecting Duct Functions

Nephron regions are specialized for different functions, reflected in their histology.

Counter-Current Mechanism

Counter-current multiplication and exchange are processes that help concentrate urine.

Renal Processes

Filtration removes substances from the blood, secretion adds substances to the filtrate, and reabsorption returns substances to the blood.

Hormonal Control of Reabsorption

Hormones control water and solute reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.

Urine Pathway

Urine flows from collecting ducts to the ureters, bladder, and urethra.

Excretory Organ Histology

The bladder and urethra facilitate urine storage and excretion.

Micturition Reflex Control

Involuntary and voluntary mechanisms regulate the micturition reflex.

Aging and Urinary Excretion

Age-related changes affect urinary excretion efficiency.

Body Water Percentage

The human body is approximately 60% water, with intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments.

Major ICF & ECF Ions

Major ions include sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate.

Major Solid Components

Proteins and fats are the major solid components of the body.

Hormonal Regulation of Fluid Balance

ADH, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone, and natriuretic peptides regulate fluid and electrolyte balance.

Water Balance Maintenance

Fluid gains from intake and metabolism, while fluid losses occur through urine, sweat, and respiration.

Edema Definition and Causes

Edema is fluid accumulation in tissues, caused by various factors.

Electrolyte Homeostasis

Sodium, potassium, and calcium homeostasis is maintained through hormonal and renal mechanisms.

Dangers of Electrolyte Imbalances

Electrolyte imbalances can have dangerous effects on physiological functions.

Physiological Role of Electrolytes

Sodium maintains fluid balance, potassium affects nerve and muscle function, and calcium is essential for bone and muscle function.

Acid-Base Definitions

Acid releases H+ ions, base accepts H+ ions, pH measures acidity, salt is an ionic compound, and a buffer resists pH changes.

Classes of Acids

Volatile acids, fixed acids, and organic acids are the three classes of acids in the body.

Buffering Systems

Carbonic acid-bicarbonate, protein, and phosphate buffering systems maintain pH.

Acid-Base Disturbances

Respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and metabolic alkalosis are acid-base disturbances.

Renal and Respiratory Compensation

Renal and respiratory systems compensate for acid-base disturbances.

Aging and Fluid Balance

Aging affects fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance due to decreased kidney function and other factors.

Major functions of the digestive tract

These include ingestion, mechanical breakdown, propulsion, chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation.

Control mechanisms of digestive activity

The digestive activity is regulated by local, neural, and hormonal control mechanisms which includes peristalsis and segmentation.

Functions of the organs of the oral cavity

The organs of the oral cavity perform particular functions such as chewing, tasting and some digestion.

Function and main components of saliva

The saliva functions to moisten food, begin chemical digestion, and cleanse the mouth, and its main components are water, mucus, enzymes, and electrolytes.

Control of salivation

The salivation is controlled by the nervous system.

Function of the parts of a tooth

The parts of a tooth function in biting, cutting, and grinding food.

Process of dental succession and the cause of tooth decay

Dental succession is the process of replacing deciduous teeth with permanent teeth and tooth decay is caused by bacterial activity.

Histology of the esophagus

The histology of the esophagus serves its function in food transport by providing protection and lubrication.

Process and control of deglutition (swallowing)

Deglutition (swallowing) involves voluntary and involuntary muscle contractions controlled by the brainstem.

Anatomy of the stomach

The anatomy of the stomach relates to its functions in digestion through its muscular walls, secretory cells, and acidic environment.

Secretory cells include mucous cells, parietal cells, chief cells, and G cells, which secrete mucus, hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, and gastrin, respectively.

The stomach's secretory cells, their secretory products, and the effects of their products

How HCL is formed and secreted, and the functions of HCL

It is formed and secreted when parietal cells transport H+ and Cl- ions and its function is to denature proteins, kill bacteria, and activate pepsin.

How the stomach protects itself from acid

The stomach protects itself from acid by secreting a layer of mucus, having tight junctions between epithelial cells, and rapidly replacing damaged cells.

Regulation of gastric secretions during the cephalic, gastric and intestinal phases

Gastric secretions are regulated during the cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phases through neural and hormonal mechanisms.

Gastroenteric and gastroileal reflexes

The gastroenteric and gastroileal reflexes stimulate motility and secretion in the small intestine and ileum, respectively, in response to gastric activity.

Regions of the small intestines

The small intestines is made of duodenum, jejunum and ileum

Location of most absorption

Most absorption takes place in the Jejunum.

Location of secretion of digestive enzymes

Secretion of most digestive enzymes, bicarbonate and mucus occurs in the Duodenum.

Location of Vitamin B12 absorption

Vitamin B12 is absorbed in the Ileum.

Major exocrine secretory components of the pancreas and their function

The major exocrine secretory components of the pancreas are pancreatic enzymes and bicarbonate, which aid in digestion and neutralize stomach acid.

Microanatomy of the liver and its functions in metabolic and hematological regulation

The microanatomy of the liver with its portal triads, sinusoids, Kupffer cells (liver macrophages), hepatocytes and central veins, is suited for its functions in metabolic and hematological regulation because it allows for efficient nutrient processing, waste removal, and immune surveillance

Synthesis, storage, function, and recycling of bile

Bile is synthesized in the liver, stored in the gallbladder, functions in fat emulsification, and is recycled through enterohepatic circulation.

Major effects of duodenal hormones

Gastrin stimulates gastric acid secretion, secretin stimulates bicarbonate secretion, gastric inhibitory peptide inhibits gastric motility, cholecystokinin stimulates gallbladder contraction and enzyme secretion, and vasoactive intestinal peptide stimulates intestinal secretion.

Specialized functions of the large intestines

The specialized functions of the large intestines include water absorption, electrolyte balance, and vitamin production.

Mass movements, and the defecation reflex of the large intestines

Mass movements propel feces towards the rectum, and the defecation reflex eliminates feces from the body.

Relative distribution and roles of the microbiota in the gastrointestinal tract

The microbiota in the gastrointestinal tract aid in digestion, vitamin synthesis, and immune function.

Structure and function of the small intestine with that of the large intestine

The small intestine is adapted for nutrient absorption with its villi and microvilli, while the large intestine is adapted for water absorption and waste storage.

Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins

Carbohydrates are digested into monosaccharides by enzymes like amylase and absorbed via active transport, lipids are digested into fatty acids and monoglycerides by lipase and absorbed via micelles, and proteins are digested into amino acids by proteases and absorbed via active transport.

Mechanisms of ion absorption and list the major ions absorbed

Key ions include sodium, potassium, chloride, and calcium.

Vitamin : fat-soluble from water soluble vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds essential for metabolic functions where fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) are absorbed with lipids, and water-soluble (B, C) are absorbed via active transport.