Module 31: Studying and Encoding Memories

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

Ebbinghaus’ retention (forgetting) curve

Ebbinghaus found that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on Day 1, the less time he required to relearn it on Day 2. Speed of relearning is one measure of memory retention.

overlearning

Additional rehearsal of verbal information can produce overlearning, which increases retention— especially when practice is distributed over time. For students, this means that it helps to rehearse course material even after you know it.

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time.

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

What information do we process automatically?

1. procedural memory

2. classically conditioned associations

3. space

4. time

5. frequency

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

What is our short-term and working memory capacity?

Short-term memory capacity is about seven items, plus or minus two, but this information disappears from memory quickly without rehearsal.

Working memory capacity varies, depending on age, intelligence level, and other factors.

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

mnemonics [nih-MON-iks]

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Hierarchies

refer to systems where individuals or concepts are ranked one above another based on specific criteria.

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.