AP Psych Unit 6

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Stability and change across lifespan

The interplay between factors that remain constant and those that evolve throughout an individual's life.

Nature and nurture

The debate regarding the relative importance of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) in human development.

Continuous and discontinuous

Two perspectives on development; continuous suggests gradual changes, while discontinuous implies distinct stages.

Longitudinal studies

Research method that involves observing the same subjects over a long period to understand changes over time.

Cross-sectional studies

Research method that compares different groups of subjects at one point in time to infer developmental changes.

Teratogens

Agents that can disrupt prenatal development, potentially causing physical or psychological harm to a developing fetus.

Fine and gross motor coordination

Fine motor skills involve small muscle movements (e.g., grasping), while gross motor skills involve larger movements (e.g., walking).

Physical development and maturation

The biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior and physical attributes.

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

Rooting reflex

An innate reflex in infants that occurs when the cheek is stroked, leading to head turning and sucking.

Visual cliff

A laboratory device used to test depth perception in infants.

Critical and sensitive periods

Distinct times in development when certain experiences must occur for normal development, especially in language acquisition.

Imprinting

A form of rapid learning occurring during a specific, critical period in animal development.

Adolescent physical development

The series of physical changes that occur during puberty as a person transitions from childhood to adulthood.

Puberty

The period during which individuals develop primary (reproductive organs) and secondary (physical traits) sex characteristics.

Menarche

The first occurrence of menstruation in females.

Spermarche

The first occurrence of ejaculation in males.

Menopause

The cessation of menstruation marking the end of a female's reproductive years.

Physical decline in later life

The gradual deterioration of physical abilities such as mobility, flexibility, reaction time, and sensory acuity.

Piaget’s theory

A comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence, proposing different stages of cognitive development.

Schema

A mental framework that organizes and interprets information.

Assimilation

The process of incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

Accommodation

The process of adjusting schemas to fit new information.

Sensorimotor stage

The first stage in Piaget's theory, where infants learn through interactions with their environment via sensory and motor activities.

Object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen or heard.

Preoperational stage

The second stage in Piaget's theory, characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism.

Mental symbols

Representations of objects, events, or concepts, which develop during the preoperational stage.

Pretend play

Imaginative play in which children create scenarios and assume roles.

Conservation

The understanding that quantity doesn’t change even when its shape does; typically not mastered in the preoperational stage.

Reversibility

The ability to reverse operations or processes in the mind; lacking in the preoperational stage.

Egocentrism

The inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and that of others, common in the preoperational stage.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects have feelings, thoughts, and intentions.

Theory of mind

The understanding that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that are different from one's own.

Concrete operational stage

The third stage in Piaget's theory, where children gain a better understanding of mental operations and can think logically about concrete events.

Formal operational stage

The final stage in Piaget's theory, characterized by abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Vygotsky’s view on cognitive development

An emphasis on social interaction and culture in cognitive development, highlighting tools for learning.

Scaffolding

A method of teaching that involves providing support to learners until they can perform tasks independently.

Zone of proximal development

The difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with help.

Fluid intelligence

The capacity to reason and solve new problems independently of previously acquired knowledge.

Crystallized intelligence

The ability to use learned knowledge and experience.

Dementia

A decline in cognitive function severe enough to interfere with daily living.

Phonemes

The smallest unit of sound in a language.

Morphemes

The smallest grammatical units in a language that carry meaning.

Semantics

The aspect of language concerned with meaning.

Grammar

The system of rules that governs the structure of sentences in a language.

Syntax

The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

Universal language stages

The stages of language acquisition that exhibit similar patterns across various languages and cultures.

Overgeneralization of language rules

A common error in language learning where children apply grammatical rules too broadly.

Ecological systems theory

A framework for understanding human development within the context of the relationship between individuals and their environments.

Microsystem

The immediate environment with which a child interacts, such as family and school.

Mesosystem

The interconnections between various microsystems.

Exosystem

The external environmental settings that indirectly influence development, such as parents' workplaces.

Macrosystem

The broader cultural values, laws, and resources that influence an individual's development.

Chronosystem

The dimension of time in ecological systems theory that considers the timing of life events.

Authoritarian parenting style

A style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness.

Authoritative parenting style

A parenting style characterized by high demands and high responsiveness.

Permissive parenting style

A style characterized by low demands and high responsiveness.

Attachment styles

Patterns of attachment behavior developed between children and their caregivers.

Secure attachment

A strong emotional bond that forms between a child and their caregiver.

Insecure attachment

An anxious or ambivalent bond often due to inconsistent caregiving.

Avoidant attachment

A form of insecure attachment characterized by avoidance of intimacy and connection.

Anxious attachment

An insecure attachment style marked by high levels of anxiety and fear of abandonment.

Disorganized attachment

A type of insecure attachment characterized by a lack of clear attachment behavior.

Temperament

The innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment.

Separation anxiety

Distress experienced by children when separated from their primary caregivers.

Contact comfort vs. food

Harlow’s study showing that comfort from a caregiver is more important than food in forming attachment.

Parallel play

A type of play where children play alongside each other without interaction.

Pretend play with peers

Imaginative and cooperative play among children that fosters social skills.

Adolescent egocentrism

The heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, leading to a belief that others are as focused on them as they are.

Imaginary audience

The belief in adolescence that one is the focus of everyone else's attention.

Personal fable

The belief that one's experiences and feelings are unique and cannot be understood by others.

Social clock

The societal expectations for the timing of life events and milestones.

Cellular clock theory

A theory suggesting that cells can divide only a limited number of times before they begin to die.

Wear and tear theory

The idea that the body, like any machine, gradually deteriorates over time due to use.

Emerging adulthood

A phase of development between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood, typically in the late teens to mid-twenties.

Psychosocial stages (Erikson)

The eight stages of human development proposed by Erik Erikson, focusing on psychosocial conflicts.

Trust and mistrust

The first stage in Erikson's theory where infants learn whether or not they can trust their caregivers.

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

The second stage in Erikson's theory where toddlers learn to do things independently.

Initiative vs. guilt

The third psychosocial stage in Erikson's theory, where children begin to initiate activities.

Industry vs. inferiority

The fourth stage in Erikson's theory, focusing on competence and achievement.

Identity vs. role confusion

The fifth stage in Erikson's theory where adolescents explore their independence and sense of self.

Intimacy vs. isolation

The sixth stage in Erikson's theory focusing on forming intimate relationships with others.

Generativity vs. stagnation

The seventh stage in Erikson's theory where adults seek to create a legacy for the future.

Integrity vs. despair

The eighth stage in Erikson's theory where older adults reflect on their lives with a sense of fulfillment or regret.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic events occurring before the age of 18 that may have lasting effects on health and well-being.

Identity statuses (James Marcia)

Four categories of identity development: achievement, diffusion, foreclosure, and moratorium.

Achievement status

An identity status where an individual has explored options and made commitments.

Diffusion status

An identity status characterized by a lack of direction or commitment.

Foreclosure status

An identity status where commitment is made without exploration.

Moratorium status

An identity status characterized by exploration without making commitments.

Racial/ethnic identity

An individual's sense of identity based on their racial or ethnic group.

Sexual orientation

An individual's pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others.

Religious identity

The sense of belonging to a particular religion or spiritual practice.

Occupational identity

An individual's sense of self based on their work or career.

Familial identity

An individual's sense of belonging to family and understanding their role within it.

Possible selves

Concepts individuals hold about who they might become in the future.