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Plato Everyone has their own perception of the world and we're all born with all the knowledge but unlock it as we go
Aristotle we learn as we go
Renee Descartes dualism - the body and mind are two separate entities
John Locke Tabula Rasa - We're born with a blank slate Empiricism - Observation and experimentation enables scientific knowledge
Willhelm Wundt First person to study psychology in a lab
G. Stanly Hall started the first psychology lab in the US at John's Hopkins and was the first president of the APA
Edward Titchner founder of structuralism
Structuralism the analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind
Introspection A method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings
William James founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment
Functionalism a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
Mary Whiton Calkins First female president of the APA
Margaret Floyd Washburn Was the first female PhD in psychology
psychoanalytics/psychodynamics psychological perspective concerned with how unconscious instincts, conflicts, motives, and defenses influence behavior
Behaviorism the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only
Humanistic Psychology historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth
Cognitive Neuroscience A field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity.
Ivan Pavlov studied classical conditioning
Jean Piaget studied cognitive development
Charles Darwin studied evolutionary psychology
Positive Psychology the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
Behavioral Perspective Investigates how learned and observable behaviors impact behavior
Biological Perspective Investigates how genetics impact behavior
Cognitive Perspective Investigates how our thought processes impact behavior
Evolutionary Perspective Investigates how natural selection impacts the psychological traits we have now
Humanistic Perspective Investigates how the drive for self improvement impacts behavior
Psychodynamic Perspective Investigates how subconscious drives and conflicts impact behavior
Socio-cultural Perspective Investigates how peoples' overall environment impacts behavior
Testing Effect Enhanced performance on a memory test caused by being tested on the material to be remembered.
SQ3R a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review
psychaitrist a physician who can diagnose and treat mental disorders
Human Factors Psychologist focus on the interaction of people, machines, and physical environments
Developmental Psychologist a psychologist who studies the emotional, cognitive, biological, personal, and social changes that occur as an individual matures
Cognitive Psychologist study how we perceive, think, and solve problems
Educational Psychologist studies the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
Experimental Psychologist conducts experimental research studies
Psychometric Psychologist quantitatively studies the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
Social Psychologist Studies how the individual's behavior and mental processes are affected by interactions with other people
Forensic Psychologist applies psychological concepts to legal issues
Environmental Psychologist studies relationships between people and their physical environment
Health Psychologist studies the interaction between physical and psychological health factors
industrial/organizational psychologist applies psychological principles to the workplace to improve productivity and the quality of work life
Neuropsychologist studies how brain dysfunction affects cognition, emotion, and behavior
Rehabilitation Psychologist works with people who have lost optimal functioning after an accident, illness, or other event
School Psychologist works with parents, teachers, students to solve problems
Clinical Psychologist diagnoses and treats people with emotional disturbances
Community Psychologist work to create social and physical environments that are healthy for all
Counseling Psychologist treats people with adjustment problems
Personality Psychologist studies how people differ from one another
Hindsight Bias the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
Overconfidence the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
Theory A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data
Hypothesis A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Operational Definitions a statement of the procedures used to define research variables
Case Study an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Naturalistic Observation observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Surveys Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions.
Wording Effect the effect that question phrasing and order have on how people answer surveys
Sampling Bias A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.
Population all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
Random Sample a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Positive Correlation A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.
Negative Correlation the relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases
No Relationship as one variable increases the other stays the same
illusory correlation the perception of a relationship where none exists
Regression Toward the Mean the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back toward their average.
Experimental Method A method of investigation used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by purposely manipulating one factor thought to produce change in another factor.
Experimental Group In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
Control Group In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Randomly Assign assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups
Single-blind procedure research design in which participants don't know whether they are in the experimental or control group
double-blind procedure an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
Placebo Effect the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior
Independent Variable The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
dependent variable The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.
Confounding variable a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
External Validity the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people
Internal Validity the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable
Descriptive Research research methods that involve observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively and systematically
Correlational Research research that seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists
Experimental Research research designed to discover causal relationships between various factors
Institutional Review Board (IRB) A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology.
descriptive statistics numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
Histogram a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
Mode The value that occurs most frequently in a given data set.
Mean average
Median Middle number
Skewed When there are a few outliers that make the results lean toward one side
Range the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard Deviation a measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean
Normal Curve the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
inferential statistics numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance
statistical significance a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance