ap psychology unit 4 ( part 1 )

attribution theory

We explain another person’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

dispositional attributions

a type of attribution in which you assign responsibility for an event or action to the person involved

situational attributions

a type of attribution in which you assign responsibility for an event or action to the circumstances of the situation

explanatory style

a psychological attribute that indicates how people explain to themselves why they experience a particular event, either positive or negative

actor-observer bias

the tendency to attribute others’ behaviors to internal causes while attributing our own behavior to external or situational causes

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers to, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

self serving bias

our normal tendency to perceive ourselves favorably, as when viewing ourselves as better than average or when accepting credit for our successes but not blame for our failures

internal locus of control

the perception that we control our own fate

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

self-fulfilling prophecy

a phenomenon in which a belief in something causes it to come true

social comparison

the tendency of individuals to evaluate their own abilities, achievements, and attributes by comparing themselves with others

relative deprivation

the belief that a person will feel deprived or entitled to something based on the comparsion to someone else

stereotype

a generalized belief about a group of people

cognitive load

the amount of mental effort or resources required to complete a task

prejudice

an unjustifiable attitude toward a group of people, typically based on stereotyped beliefs and negative feelings. a predisposition to discriminatory behavior

discrimination

an unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

implicit attitudes

evaluations that occur without conscious awareness towards an attitude object or the self. These evaluations are generally either favorable or unfavorable and come about from various influences in the individual experience

just-world phenomenon

the tendency to believe that the world is just and fair; people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

out-group homogeneity bias

the tendency to assume that the members of other groups are very similar to each other, particularly in contrast to the assumed diversity of the membership of one’s own group

in-group bias

you favor those with whom you share a common identity

ethnocentrism

the practice of regarding one’s own ethnic, racial, or social group as the center of all things

belief perseverance

the tendency for individuals to continue holding onto a belief even when presented with evidence that directly contradicts it, essentially clinging to their original opinion despite proof to the contrary

confirmation bias

the tendency of people to favor information that confirms or strengthens their beliefs or values and is difficult to dislodge once affirmed

cognitive dissonance

that we act to reduce this discomfort we feel when our actions are inconsistent with our thoughts

social norms

understood rules and expectations for how people behave

social influence

how the presence of others alters our behavior

normative social influence

going along with others in pursuit of social approval or belonging

informative social influence

going along with others because their ideas and behavior make sense, the evidence in our social environment changes our minds

central route to persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

peripheral route to persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as speaker’s attractiveness

halo effect

when positive impressions of people lead to positive views about their character and personality traits

foot-in-the-door technique

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

door-in-the-face technique

the tendency for people to comply with a smaller request after rejecting an initially larger request

conformity

refers to adjusting our behavior or thinking to fit in with a group standard

individualism

tend to value personal independence and individual achievement

collectivism

tend to value group goals, social identity, and commitments

multiculturalism

the belief in the equal coexistence and recognition of multiple cultures within a society

group polorization

a phenomenon where the decisions and opinions of people in a group setting become more extreme than their actual, privately held beliefs after discussion within the group

groupthink

The mode of reasoning that occurs when the desire for harmony in the decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

diffusion of responsibility

individuals feeling less responsible for taking actions or making decisions when they are part of a group because they assume someone else will take on the responsibility

social loafing

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling efforts toward a common goal than if they are individually accountable

deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurs in a group that fosters arousal and anonymity.

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

prosocial behavior

behavior that helps another and for which an internal reward or external reward may be received

altruism

an unselfish regard for the welfare of others, or engaging in acts of kindness without expecting anything in return

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those in need of help, even if the cost outweighs the benefit

the bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

personality

describes the behavioral, cognitive, and emotional patterns that make up a person’s unique adjustment to life

psychodynamic theory

view human behavior as a dynamic interaction between the conscious mind and unconscious mind

ego

conscious mediator between the id and superego, making goals and actions reasonable and realistic

defense mechanism

tactics that reduce or redirect anxiety by distorting reality

denial

refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities