EXCRETORY-DIGESTIVE-SYSTEM-BIO2 (copy)

Excretion

rids the body of nitrogenous metabolites and other waste products

Cellular waste

this is what removed from the body which includes heat, water, salts, CO2, urea, and uric acid

Ammonia

-animals that excrete nitrogenous wastes this need access to lots of water

-in many invertebrates, this release occurs across the whole body surface

-most aquatic animals, including most bony fishes

Urea

-most terrestrial mammals and many marine species excrete ______, which is less toxic than ammonia

-in most vertebrates, _________ is produced in the liver

-circulatory system carries ________ to kidneys, where it is excreted

-conversion of ammonia to ________ is energetically expensive; excretion of ______ requires less water than ammonia

Uric Acid

-insects, land snails, and many reptiles, including birds, mainly excrete this

-is relatively nontoxic and does not dissolve readily in water

-can be secreted as a paste with little water loss

-is more energetically expensive to produce than urea

Protozoa

cell membrane (diffusion) contractile vacuole (excess water)

Flatworm (Planaria)

flame cells

Earthworm

nephridia, skin

Grasshopper

malphigian tubules, tracheae

Crayfish

kidneys, gills

Human

lungs, skin, liver, kidneys

Snake

kidneys

Lungs

excrete some waste products, e.g. CO2 and H2O

Skin

removal of waste through sweat glands

Liver

(via intestines) detoxifies blood, excretes bile pigments, and forms urea

Kidneys

-filters waste from the blood

-main organ of urinary system

-regulates electrolytes in blood

Urinary System

excretes waste and maintains homeostasis of body fluids

Ureters

narrow muscular tubes that take urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder

Urinary Bladder

muscular sacks that stores urine

Urethra

small tube that leads urine from bladder out of the body

Nephron

-about one million per idney

-microscopic units that filter blood of wastes

-H2O and waste taken from blood into nephron

-form urine

Glomerulus

-clump of capillaries

filtrate

most excretory systems produce urine by refining a _________ derived from body fluids

Filtration1

filtering of body fluids

Reabsorption2

reclaiming valuable solutes

Secretion3

adding nonessential solutes and wastes to the filtrate

Excretion4

processed filtrate containing nitrogenous wastes is released from the body

Bowman’s Capsule

blood filtrate produced in ________ __________ contains salts, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, nitrogenous wastes, and other small molecules

Thick ascending limb of the Loop of Henle

has low permeability to water, but it is permeable to ions

Proximal Tubule, concentrated

-reabsorption of ions, water, and nutrients

-molecules are transported actively and passively from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid and then capillaries

-as filtrate passes thru _______ _______, materials to be excreted become _________

-some toxic materials are actively secreted into the filtrate

Descending Limb of the Loop of Henle

-reabsorption of water continues thru channels formed by aquaporin proteins

-movement is driven by the high osmolarity of the interstitial fluid, which is hyperosmotic to the filtrate

-filtrate becomes increasingly concentrated

Ascending Limb of the Loop of Henle

-salt but not water is able to diffuse from the tubule into the interstitial fluid

-filtrate becomes increasingly dilute

-transport epithelial cells have plasma membranes of low permeability to water

Distal Tubule

-regulates the K+ and NaCl concentrations of body fluids

-controlled movements of ions (H+ and HCO3-) contributes to pH regulation

Collecting Duct

-carries filtrate thru the medulla to the renal pelvis

-one of the most important tasks is reabsorption of solutes and water

-urine is hyperosmotic to body fluids

Active Transport

picture someone paddling upstream in that lazy river. Active transport is like that. It's when the cell needs to use energy (usually in the form of ATP, the cell's energy currency) to move things across the membrane, even if it's going against the flow.

Passive Transport

Imagine a lazy river where things just float along without needing any energy to push them. That's a lot like ___________- in cells. It's when stuff like water, small molecules, and even some ions move across a cell membrane without the cell needing to spend any extra energy.

Plasma Osmolarity

-the _________ of blood _______, which is a measure of the hydration status

-measures the body’s electrolyte-water balance

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

-also called vasopressin

-its molecules is released from the posterior pituitary bind to and activate membrane receptors on collecting duct cells

Freshwater Fish

-lives in water

-less concentrated than body fluids

-tends to gain water and lose salt

-does not drink water

-active transport by gills

-large volume of urine and is less concentrated than body fluids

Marine Bony Fish

-lives in water

-more concentrated than body fluids

-tends to lose water and gain salt

-drinks water

-active transport by gills

-small volume of urine and is slightly less concentrated than body fluids

Terrestrial Vertebrate

-lives in land

-tends to lose body water to air

-drinks water by mouth

-moderate volume of urine and is more concentrated than body fluids

Homeostatic Regulation of the Kidney

-mammals can control volume and osmolarity of urine in response to changes in salt intake and water availability

-combination of nervous and hormonal controls manages the osmoregulatory functions of the mammalian kidney, which contribute to homeostasis for blood pressure and blood volume

Why Alcohol is Diuretic?

-it inhibits the release of ADH

-inhibits pituitary secretion of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), which acts on kidney to reabsorb water

-when ADH level drop, kidneys do not reabsorb as much water causing it to produce more urine

Bladder & Kidney Infections

caused by bacteria from colon/rectum entering urethra

Kidney Stones

crystallization of minerals salts & uric acid that block passage of urine

Kidney Disease

caused by long term diabetes, infections, & chemical poisoning

Gout

form of arthritis where excess production of uric acid leads to deposits of crystals in joints (esp. toes)

Hyperosmotic

Imagine a glass of water with a lot of salt dissolved in it. It's like the water is really thirsty because there's so much salt around. So, if you put a cell in this salty water, the water inside the cell will want to escape to dilute the saltiness outside.

Hypoosmotic

think of a glass of water that doesn't have much salt in it at all, just plain water. It's like the water outside the cell is not as thirsty because there's not much salt around. So, if you put a cell in this water, the water outside will want to rush into the cell to try to balance things.

Digestion

-breaking down food into chemical components that cells on an animal body can use as source of energy

Chemical energy

for cellular processes

Organic Building blocks

for macromolecules

Nutrients

Essential _______

Extracellular Digestion

food is broken down within the body, but inside a hallow sac or tube that opens to the external environment

Ingestion1

taking food into the body

Digestion2

breaking down food it can be: mechanical and chemical

Absorption3

moving nutrients across the lining of the digestive region and into the internal environment

Elimination4

expelling any leftover material that was not digested and absorbed

Coelom

is also called the body cavity

Digestive Tract

group of tissues or organs designed to breakdown food. __________ can be complete or incomplete

Filter Feeding

organisms that filter small particles, like plankton, from water, examples include whales and baleen sharks

Substrate Feeding

organisms that ingest organic material from material they live in, like soil or wood. Earthworms and caterpillar eating feces are the examples

Fluid Feeding

organisms that feed by sucking nutrient-rich fluids from a living host. Mosquitoes and leeches are examples

Bulk Feeding

Organisms that consume large pieces of food. Humans and many other animals are bulk feeders, eating whole plants or animals

Mammalian Mouth

humans have two sets of teeth over the course of a lifetime, their deciduous teeth or “baby teeth” are replaced by adult teeth and human adult teeth do not grow anymore

Mechanical Digestion

-starts when our teeth rip and crush food to increase the surface area of food particles

-breaking down food into smaller pieces through actions like chewing, grinding, and churning by muscles in the digestive system.

adult human

have all four tooth types (molar, premolar, canine, incisor) and are equally large

carnivore

with enlarged canine teeth and sharp premolars

herbivore

with reduced canines, and large, broad molars and premolars

Mammal’s Tongue

-is a bundle of membrane-covered skeletal muscle attached to the floor of the mouth

-movements of this help position food where teeth can chop or shred it

-mix food with saliva from salivary glandd

Salivary Glands

produce saliva that is a watery substance produced from the mouth of animals

Parotid

salivary gland that is situated around the external ear

Sublingual

salivary gland that is located below the tongue

Submandibular

salivary gland that is situated in the digastrics triangle of neck

Saliva

-contains glycoproteins that combine with water to form mucus

-the mucus helps small bits of food stick together in moist, easy to follow clumps

Salivary amylase

an enzyme in saliva begins the process of chemical digestion by breaking starch to disaccharides through hydrolysis

swallow, epiglottis

When you __________, the larynx rises, causing the _________ to fold over and cover the entrance to the larynx.

At the same time, vocal cords constrict, These actions block the route between the pharynx and larynx so food cannot enter the airway and CHOKE YOU.

when trachea open

-epiglottis up

-esophageal sphincter contracted

when esophagus opem

-epiglottis down

-glottis up and closed

-esophageal sphincter relaxed

Peristalsis process

-rings of smooth muscle contraction (indicated by the inward pointing arrows) travel in the mouth-to-anus direction along digestive tract.

-contraction between narrows the interior of the tract, pushing material inside it (green) through the tube

Peristalsis

-wave of smooth muscle contraction propelling food through the digestive tract

Stomach

-is a J-shaped, muscular, stretchable sac with a sphincter at either end

-acid and pepsin begin digestion (protein)

Rugae

-folds in the interior of the stomach

-smooths out as the stomach is filled with food, it can expand to hold about 1L of fluid

Functions of Stomach

-stores food

-mechanically breaks down food

-secretes substances that aid in chemical digestion

Gastrin

-arrival of food in the stomach triggers endocrine cells to secrete this

-it is secreted in the stomach lining into the blood

Gastrin Function

-acts on acid-secreting cells in the stomach lining to increase their acid output

-stimulates peristalsis in the stomach

Chyme

this contraction mixes gastric fluid with food forming a semiliquid mass called ________

Mucosa

glandular epithelium that lines the stomach and secrete gastric fluid

Gastric Fluid

(2L each day) - includes mucus, HCI, enzyme pepsin

1.5 and 3, pepsin

-pH of stomach is between __________ depending on the amount of acid secreted on it.

-high acidity activates ________

Chemical Digestion

-starts in the stomach (protein)

-its acidity denatures proteins exposing their peptide bonds to pepsin thus breaking them into smaller polypeptides

When stomach is EMPTY

contraction of smooth muscles slows and gastrin secretion slows

Gastroesophageal reflux (acid reflux)

-the sphincter at the entrance to the stomach (the Gastroesophageal sphincter) does not close properly or opens when it should be closed.

-ACID CHYME splashes into the esophagus, causing a burning pain commonly called heartburn or acid indigestion

secreted mucus, lining

a protective layer of ________ __________ prevents acid and enzymes in gastric fluid from damaging the stomach ___________

Ulcer (crater-like sore)

-most of this arise after acid-tolerant HELICOBACTER PYLORI bacteria infect cells of the stomach lining.

-H. pylori degrades the protective mucus and makes chemicals that increase gastrin secretion, causing the stomach to secrete extra acid

-overuse of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen or aspirin can also cause a stomach ______

Multiple Stomach Chambers

-ruminants like cattle, goats, sheep, antelope, and deer are hoofed grazers that have ________________

-1st and 2nd chamber contains MICROBES that can breakdown cellulose

-In 2nd chamber, solid foods is stored and forms a CUD that is regurgitated—moved back into the mouth for a second round of chewing

-fluid rich in nutrients moves from the 2nd chamber to the 3rd and 4th chambers, and finally to the intestine

Small Intestine

-only small in terms of its diameter—about 2.5 cm (1 inch), it is the longest segment of the gut

-uncoiled, adult small intestine would extend about 5 to 7 meters (16 to 23 feet)

Duodenum

-region of small intestine

-receives food from the stomach

Jejunum

-region of small intestine

-further break down food particles that have been partially digested in the stomach and duodenum

Ileum

-region of small intestine

-empties to the large intestine