Late Qing Reform (1901-1911)

Outline of Constitution (欽定憲法大綱) (1908)

emperor enjoyed superior power; a 9-year programme of constitutional preparation

National Assembly (1910) and Cabinet (1911)

• responsible to the Emperor instead of the people;

• the electorate were confined to local gentry and there was no universal suffrage (National Assembly)

‘Royal Cabinet'

members of the Cabinet were all appointed by the Emperor; dominated by 7 out of 13 Manzu nobles, only 4 were Hanzu

Provincial Assemblies (1909)

had some election elements at the local level; the electorate were confined to local gentry and there was no universal suffrage

Political Limitation: Insincere reform

aimed at saving Manzu rule; ‘Royal Cabinet’:centralize power and consolidate Qing rule; taking 9 years to prepare for a constitution

Rapid development of railway network (nationalized in 1911)

Economic policy (1)

agricultural backwardness

so much emphasis was put on industry and commerce but more than 80% of the Chinese population were still engaging in agricultural activities; agricultural productivity remained low without mechanization

lack of competitiveness in local products

stagnant growth in industry and commerce resulted in small-scale local industry; local products could hardly compete with foreign ones

Foreign powers dominating China's economy

foreign goods imported to China at a low tariff rate (due to foreign control)→ferocious competitions among local and foreign companies (in terms of their products)

Stamping out feudal customs

forbidding foot-binding, slavery, opium smoking, allowing Manzu-Han inter-marriage, and abolishing the salary system of Qing Bannermen 清旗人俸祿

Social evils remaining prevalent

It was challenging to remove the deeply-rooted traditional thoughts (until the Nanjing Decade)

Feudalistic ideas

racial discrimination, gender inequality, hierarchy persisted and prevailed

Setting enterprises, 300 factories and mines

Economic policy (2)

Setting up 12 local banks (Daqing Bank, Bank of Communications, etc.)

Economic policy (3)

introducing The Commercial Law of Great Qing to regulate commercial activities

Economic policy (4)

Economic limitation: Insufficient funds

Unequal treaties (Shimonoseki Treaty 馬關條約 and Boxer Protocol 辛丑條約: China had to pay an indemnity of 450~980 million taels of silver) cost China an arm and a leg

Social limtation: Opposition from the revolutionaries and conservative citizens (民智未開)

Conservative citizens reckoned that railway constructions would destroy their ancestral graves and feng shui

Replacing Zongli Yamen with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1901)

Diplomatic policy (1)

China having an unequal footing

Unequal treaties (Treaty of Nanjing, Tianjin, Beijing, Shimonoseki, and Boxer Protocol)

Lack of independence, autonomy and sovereignty

Tariff and salt tax autonomy, extraterritoriality (治外法權、領事裁判權), and Most Favoured Nation (最惠國待遇)

Abolition of Eight-legged essay (1902)

Educational policy (1)

Abolition of civil service exam (1905)

Educational policy (2)

Introducing a new, mixed curriculum

Educational policy (3)

Extremely low educational level

literacy rate only reached 10%

Serious gender disparity in education

Educational system catered to males; for females, their enrollment rate was less than 1%

Dismissing redundant officials and abolished donation system 捐納

Political policy (1)

sending 5 ministers to Britain, France, Japan, Germany, and US to study their constitutions

Political policy (2)

Replacing 6 Boards with 11 Ministries

Political policy (3)

passing the 19 Articles 君主立憲重大條款 (1911)

Political policy (4)

Setting up Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce (1903); Ministry of Post and Communications (1906)

Economic policy (5)

Establishing a banking system

Economic policy (6)

Company Act 公司律 and Articles of Association 公司章程, etc.

Drafting commercial laws to build a sound commerce environment and facilitate modern business practices in China

setting up a focus group (1909)

balancing the revenue and expenditure of the central and local governments

sending 120 students to study abroad (1902)

Educational policy (4)