Social Psychology - PSYC 3806

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context.

Social Context

The unique emphasis of social psychology on the social nature of individuals and how social factors influence thoughts, emotions, motives, and actions.

Interactionist Perspective

The principle that behavior is a function of the interaction between the person and the environment, emphasizing the influence of both internal and external factors.

Social Cognition

The study of how people perceive, remember, and interpret information about themselves and others, including the influence of motivations on cognitive processes.

Biological, Evolutionary, and Cultural Perspectives

Approaches in social psychology that consider the impact of biological factors, evolutionary principles, and cultural influences on human behavior.

Social Neuroscience

The study of the relationship between neural processes and social behavior, exploring how the brain and social experiences interact.

Behavioral Genetics

A subfield examining the effects of genes on behavior, including inquiries into inherited traits like aggression and sexual orientation.

Cross-cultural Research

Investigation of similarities and differences across different cultures to understand how cultural contexts shape behavior.

New Technologies

Advances like social media, virtual reality, and brain imaging that enable researchers to study social phenomena in innovative ways.

Operational Definition

The specific method used to manipulate or measure a conceptual variable in research studies.

Conceptual Variables

Abstract and general variables used in research hypotheses, such as prejudice, conformity, attraction, love, violence, group pressure, and social anxiety.

Construct Validity

The degree to which experimental manipulations and measures accurately represent the conceptual variables they are intended to manipulate or measure.

Self-reports

Data collection method where individuals disclose their thoughts, feelings, desires, and actions, which can be prone to inaccuracies due to memory limitations and social desirability bias.

Interval-contingent self-reports

Reporting experiences at regular intervals, like once a day.

Observations

Data collection method involving direct observation of behaviors, with benefits including avoiding memory biases but drawbacks like altered behaviors when participants know they are being observed.

Interrater reliability

The level of agreement among multiple observers of the same behavior, ensuring data reliability.

Qualitative research

Data collection through open-ended responses, observations, and interviews, focusing on understanding behaviors.

Quantitative research

Data collection involving numerical data through objective testing and statistical analysis, aiming for precise measurements.

Correlational research

Examining the relationship between different variables without establishing causation, using observational, archival, or survey methods.

Experiment

Research method demonstrating causal relationships by manipulating independent variables and measuring their effects on dependent variables.

Informed consent

Participants' voluntary decision to engage in research after understanding the study's requirements.

Self-concept

The sum of beliefs individuals hold about themselves, influenced by self-schemas and memories, shaping how they evaluate and present themselves to others.

Procrastination

Purposeful delay in starting or completing a task due at a particular time

Self-handicapping

Actions people take to handicap their own performance to build an excuse for anticipated failure

Bask in Reflected Glory (BIRG)

Increasing self-esteem by associating with successful others

Downward Social Comparisons

Defensive tendency to compare oneself with less successful, happy, or fortunate others

Self-presentation

Strategies used to shape what others think of oneself and what one thinks of oneself

Strategic Self-presentation

Efforts to shape others' impressions to gain influence, power, sympathy, or approval

Brown nosing

Trying too hard to please someone

Self-verification

Desire to have others perceive us as we truly perceive ourselves

Self-monitoring

Tendency to regulate behavior to meet social demands

Fundamental Attribution Error

Tendency to overestimate personal factors and underestimate situational factors in behavior

Implicit Personality Theories

Assumptions affecting impressions of others

Attribution Theory

Describes how people explain behavior causes

Correspondent Inference Theory

Predicts inferences about enduring personal characteristics from actions

Covariation Principle

Attributing behavior to present factors

Availability Heuristic

Estimating event likelihood based on ease of recall

False Consensus

Overestimating others' similarity in opinions, attributes, and behaviors

Base-rate Fallacy

Insensitivity to consensus information in numerical form

Counterfactual Thinking

Imagining alternative events or outcomes

Actor-Observer Effect

Attributing own behavior to situational causes and others' behavior to personal factors

Belief in a Just World

Belief that individuals get what they deserve in life

Impression Formation

Integrating information to form a coherent impression

Information Integration Theory

Impression formation based on perceiver dispositions and target person's traits

Priming

Influence of recent ideas on interpreting new information

Trait Negativity Bias

Weighting negative information more heavily than positive

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Expectations leading a person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations

Stereotype

A belief or association that links a whole group of people with certain traits or characteristics.

Prejudice

Negative feelings toward persons based on their membership in certain groups.

Discrimination

Negative behavior directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group.

Group

Two or more persons perceived as related because of their interactions with each other over time, membership in the same social category, or common fate.

Ingroups

Groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging, and identity.

Outgroups

Groups with which an individual does not feel a sense of membership, belonging, or identity.

Modern Racism

A form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize.

Implicit Racism

Racism that operates unconsciously and unintentionally.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A covert measure of unconscious attitudes derived from the speed at which people respond to pairings of concepts.

Ambivalent sexism

A form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs and feelings, and affectionate, chivalrous beliefs.

Superordinate goal

A shared goal that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or groups.

Realistic conflict theory

The theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources.

Relative deprivation

Feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared to others.

Ingroup favoritism

The tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups.

Social identity theory

The theory that people favor ingroups over outgroups to enhance their self-esteem.

Central route to persuasion

The process where a person carefully considers a communication and is influenced by its strong arguments.

Cognitive dissonance theory

Holding inconsistent cognitions creates psychological tension, motivating people to reduce it.

Elaboration

Thinking about and scrutinizing the arguments in a persuasive communication.

Facial electromyograph (EMG)

Records facial muscle activity linked to emotions and attitudes.

Implicit attitude

Unconscious attitudes like prejudice that individuals are unaware of having.

Implicit relational assessment procedure (IRAP)

Measures unconscious attitudes focusing on cognition and specific relations.

Inoculation hypothesis

Exposure to weak persuasive arguments increases resistance to them later.

Insufficient deterrence

People avoid a desirable activity even with mild punishment threatened.

Insufficient justification

Freely performing attitude-discrepant behavior without a large reward.

Need for cognition (NC)

A personality trait distinguishing individuals based on their enjoyment of cognitive activities.

Peripheral route to persuasion

When individuals are influenced by superficial cues rather than careful thinking.

Persuasion

The process of changing attitudes.

Psychological reactance

People react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves.

Sleeper effect

A delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a noncredible source.

Theory of planned behavior

Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control influence actions.

Collectivism

Prioritizing interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony over personal goals in a cultural orientation.

Compliance

Behavior changes elicited by direct requests.

Conformity

Changing perceptions, opinions, or behavior to align with group norms.

Door-in-the-face technique

A compliance technique involving a large request followed by a smaller one.

Foot-in-the-door technique

A compliance technique starting with a small request before the real one.

Individualism

Prioritizing independence, autonomy, and self-reliance over group allegiances in a cultural orientation.

Informational influence

Produces conformity when a person believes others are correct.

Low-balling

Securing agreement with a request and then increasing its size.

Minority influence

Dissenters causing change within a group.

Normative influence

Produces conformity due to fear of negative social consequences.

Obedience

Behavior change due to authority commands.

Attachment style

The way a person typically interacts with significant others.

Communal relationship

A relationship in which the participants expect and desire mutual responsiveness to each other’s needs.

Self-disclosure

Revelations about the self that a person makes to others.

Social exchange theory

A perspective that views people as motivated to maximize benefits and minimize costs in their relationships with others.

Passionate love

Romantic love characterized by high arousal, intense attraction, and fear of rejection.

Reciprocity

A mutual exchange between what we give and receive—for example, liking those who like us.

Sexual orientation

One’s sexual preference for members of the same sex, opposite sex, or both sexes.

Altruistic

Motivated by the desire to improve another’s welfare.

Empathy

Understanding or vicariously experiencing another individual’s perspective and feeling sympathy and compassion for that individual.

Social norm

A general rule of conduct reflecting standards of social approval and disapproval.

Aggression

Behavior intended to harm another individual.

Cycle of family violence

The transmission of domestic violence across generations.