unit 4 part 1: social psychology and personality

person perception

 how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior

attribution theory

we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition 

the fundamental attribution error

The tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the situation and overestimate the disposition

culture

individualist westerners more often attribute behavior to people’s personal traits, people in east asian collectivist cultures are more sensitive to the power of the situation

actor observer bias

tendency for ourselves to attribute our behavior to external causes, but to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members

ethnocentrism

assuming the superiority of one’s ethnic group

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members

explicit (prejudice)

on the radar screen of our awareness

implicit (prejudice)

an unthinking knee-jerk response operating below the radar

unconscious prejudices can cause

discrimination even when people do not consciously intend to discriminate

colorism

darker skinned Black, Latino, Indian and East Asian people face greater amounts of prejudice

criminal stereotypes

Black individuals are more often associated with criminality and are judged more harshly than their White counterparts

gender prejudice

men still seen as deserving of a job when work is scare, paid better, more men in leadership roles but no real difference between men’s and women’s intelligence test scores

just world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just, or fair, and people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

in-group “us”

people with whom we share a common identity

out group “them”

those perceived as different or apart from our in-group

in group bias

a favoring of our own group

other race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races

availability heuristic

a problem-solving method in which people estimate the likelihood of events based on how fast they come to mind; the power of the vivid case

attitudes

feelings often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

foot-in-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

door-in-face phenomenon

the tendency for people to agree to a smaller request after shutting down a large one

role-playing

when you adopt a new role you strive to follow the social scripts or norms, at first, your behaviors may feel phony, but before long, what began as play acting in the theater of life becomes you

cognitive dissonance

when our attitudes are not in harmony with our actions

cognitive dissonance theory

the observation that we tend to resolve the dissonance by changing our attitudes to fit out actions

persuasion

changing people’s attitudes, potentially influencing their actions

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness

halo effect

a belief that beautiful or famous people are trustworthy and smart

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments

social contagion

the spread of behaviors, attitudes, and affect through social settings

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard because of real or imagined pressure to fit in

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-earned tasks in the presence of others

social loafing

the tendency of people in a group to show less effort when not held individually accountable

deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

group polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

groupthink

in pursuit of social harmony (and avoidance of open disagreement), groups will make decisions without an open exchange of ideas

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm, whether done out of hostility or as a calculated means to an end

genetic influence (biology of aggression)

if one identical twin admits to having a violent temper, the other twin will often independently admit the same

genetic influence (genetic markers)

y chromosome, low expression of monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene, helps break down neurotransmitters (dopamine and serotonin)

neural influence

no one sport in the brain that controls aggression, commonly linked to amygdala and frontal lobes

testosterone

other high-testosterone-linked traits among males include irritability, assertiveness, impulsiveness, hard drug use, and low tolerance for frustration.

frustration aggression principle

frustration creates anger, which can spark aggression

aversive stimuli

hot temperatures, physical pain, personal insults, foul odors, cigarette smoke, crowding—can evoke hostility

reinforcement and modeling

if an aggressive act is followed by reinforcement, the behavior is more likely to be repeated

social script

culturally provided mental files for how to act in certain situations

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

altruism

an unselfish regard for the welfare of others

bystander effect

the tendency for any nearby person (bystander) to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

social trap

a situation in which two parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting parties, as when each side itself as ethical and peaceful, and views the other side as evil and aggressive

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment