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Tafjel (1970) AIM
• Investigate minimal conditions under which discrimination between social groups could be brought about
Tafjel (1970) METHOD
• 48 schoolboys around 14-15 years old randomly allocated to a 'Klee group' or a 'Kandinsky' group
• Had previously been shown 6 slides of the artists' paintings that were unlabeled & unsigned —-> told to express preferences
• Told what group they were in (random basis)
• Asked to allocate points (worth 1/10 of a penny each) anonymously & individually in separate cubicles
• Matrix was used that allowed them to vary how the points were allocated
Tafjel (1970) RESULTS
• Boys chose to MAXIMIZE THE PROFIT OF THEIR OWN GROUP rather than maximize the profit for all
• Concerned with creating AS LARGE A DIFFERENCE AS POSSIBLE between the two groups (in favor of their own)
Tafjel (1970) CONCLUSION
• Discrimination associated w/ the categorization of the boys into apparently meaningless social groups
• Forms the basis of Tafjel's minimal group paradigm
Tafjel (1970) STRENGTHS
• Effectively establishes bare minimum for group membership
• Clearly illustrated IN-GROUP BIAS in the context of resource competition
• Starkly illustrated the occurrence of IN-GROUP BIAS as a result of very insignificant distinctions & minimal emotional involvement
Tafjel (1970) LIMITATIONS
• Conducted on 14-15 year old boys —-> results canNOT be EXTRAPOLATED or GENERALIZED
Tafjel (1970) ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Conducted on participants under the age of 18 —-> parental consent
• Deception was used to hide the true aim from participants
Tafjel (1970) METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Lab experiment —-> high levels of control over variables
• LACKED ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY and MUNDANE REALISM
Bandura et al (1961) AIM
• Investigate whether aggression can be learned through observation & imitation
Bandura et al (1961) METHOD
• 36 boys & 36 girls
• MATCHED-PAIRS DESIGN —-> everyday life levels of agression would NOT have too much of an effect on results
•12 boys & 12 girls in each group
• Group 1: watched a male or female model behave aggressively towards Bobo doll
• Group 2: watched a non-aggressive model who played quietly w/ Tinkertoys w/o exhibiting any form of either physical or verbal aggression
• Group 3: control group - not shown any model
• Children led into another room & primes for aggression by being told the toys in that room were the best & for other children —-> frustrate child & prime for aggression
• Led to another room, where they were allowed to play w/ any of the toys in it
• Observed through a one-way mirror & behavior was scored for aggression
Bandura et al (1961) RESULTS
• Children from Group 1 exhibited far more aggressive behaviors than children form Groups 2 & 3
• Often exhibited exact same forms of physical & verbal behavior that they had seen in the models
• BOYS tended to IMITATE more of the PHYSICALLY-aggressive acts than girls & were much more LIKELY than girls to IMITATE models of the SAME GENDER
• Girls In Group 1 were more LIKELY to display PHYSICAL aggression if the the model was male
• TRANSFERENCE OF BEHAVIOR: seemed to understand type of behavior exhibited towards the Bobo doll was aggressive & this used other acts of aggression they may have observed elsewhere
Bandura et al (1961) CONCLUSION
• Researchers interpreted this as meaning that SOCIAL LEARNING had taken place & that SIMILARITY TO ROLE MODELS (male or female) appeared to be a factor
Bandura et al (1961) STRENGTHS
• Clearly demonstrated BANDURA'S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
• Dual gender study
• MATCHED-PAIRS DESIGN served to minimize confounding variables
Bandura et al (1961) LIMITATIONS
• Children were used —-> NOT GENERALIZABLE to adult population
• Emic study
Bandura et al (1961) ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Children were used —-> parental consent
• "The violence displayed as well as the violence demonstrated by the Children was directed at inanimate objects & not humans, therefore it was morally acceptable."
Bandura et al (1961) METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS may have played a part in the Children behaving in ways that they presumed they were 'supposed' to behave this resulting in 'FALSE POSITIVE' results
Ayoun and Moreo (2009) AIM
• Investigate the potential influence of the cultural dimension of time orientation on the strategic behavior of hotel managers
Ayoun and Moreo (2009) METHOD
• SURVEY questionnaire was mailed to top-level hotel managers in the U.S. and THAILAND
• Usable sample of 120 was used in the analysis
Ayoun and Moreo (2009) RESULTS
• Compared to their American counterparts, THAI MANAGERS were found to place a STRONGER EMPHASIS on LONGER-TIME STRATEGIC PLANS, have a STRONGER TENDENCY TOWARD INVOLVING OTHERS WHEN DEVELOPING THEIR BUSINESS STRATEGY, & a STRONGER RELIANCE ON LONG-TERM EVALUATION OF STRATEGY
• No significant differences were found bet. the managers concerning openness to strategic change & commitment to strategic decisions
Ayoun and Moreo (2009) CONCLUSION
• TINE ORIENTATION is a relevant cultural dimensions for explaining the differences bet. managers from these 2 countries
Ayoun and Moreo (2009) STRENGTHS
• Etic study
• Relatively large sample size decreases confounding variables
Ayoun and Moreo (2009) LIMITATIONS
• SURVEY as research method —-> study relies on accuracy of respondent
• Time orientation MAY NOT be the OnLY cultural dimension at play
Ayoun and Moreo (2009) ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• No real ethical considerations
Ayoun and Moreo (2009) METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Confounding variables are present
Berry (1967) AIM
• Investigate whether rates of CONFORMITY were HIGHER in INDIVIDUALIST or COLLECTIVIST cultures
Berry (1967) METHOD
• Focused In 2 societies w/ SUBSISTENCE-LEVEL ECONOMIES(as opposed to industrial or technological economies) based on DAILY NEEDS for food & shelter
• The Temne (Sierra Leone) - agricultural economy
• The Inuit (Canada) - hunting-fishing economy
• Applied the ASCH PARADIGM to them
Berry (1967) RESULTS
• Comparative study showed that CONFORMITY was HIGHER in the more COLLECTIVIST TENME culture
• Agricultural economy demands a HIGHER DEGREE OF COOPERATION, & therefore conformity, while a hunting-fishing economy does NOT - it's not only possible, but preferable, to do it ALONE
Berry (1967) CONCLUSION
• TENME: This level of INTERDEPENDENCE & COOPERATION shapes social norms - the COLLECTIVE effort of agriculture shapes a COLLECTIVIST society
• INUIT: This level of economic INDEPENDENCE may shape social norms, & this in turn may impact behaviors like CONFORMITY
Berry (1967) STRENGTHS
• Cross-cultural study LIMITS ETHNOCENTRISM
Berry (1967) LIMITATIONS
• Only 2 cultures studied which LIMITS the GENERALIZABILITY, particularly to NON-subsistence cultures
Berry (1967) ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Research into CONFORMITY requires researchers to DECEIVE participants
Berry (1967) METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• The ASCH PARADIGM is often criticized for its ARTIFICIALITY
Odden and Rochat (2004) AIM
• Investigate the role of OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING in ENCULTURATION
Odden and Rochat (2004) METHOD
• 28 children (4-12 years old) were OBSERVED LONGITUDINALLY in the context of their village life (family, peers, school, church, other village events)
• Parents, caretakers, teachers, & other adult influences on the children were INTERVIEWED about their CHILD-DEVELOPMENT & PARENTING
• At the same time, 22 boys (5-12 years old) were OBSERVED in their CULTURAL LEARNING of subsistence fishing
• SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS were conducted upon the boys & their fishing relatives
Odden and Rochat (2004) RESULTS
• Children appear to LEARN chores by WATCHING their parents & elder siblings
• Over the course of the 2-year study, the researchers NEVER observed a parent explaining a chore to a child
• INTERVIEWS revealed that most parents did NOT think such EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION was consistent w/ the Samoan way
Odden and Rochat (2004) CONCLUSION
• Appears to be a SPECIFIC ROLE for OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING in ENCULTURATION
• Children appear to learn by watching their parents & elder siblings
Odden and Rochat (2004) STRENGTHS
• Odden was a member of the community being studied which allowed access that may have otherwise not been possible
Odden and Rochat (2004) LIMITATIONS
• Sample is very LIMITED to a NARROW population
Odden and Rochat (2004) ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Using children —-> parental consent
Odden and Rochat (2004) METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONAL was the PRIMARY research method, & it is UNCLEAR whether Odden was a participant or a non-participant
• UNCLEAR how the observed behaviors were recorder, which also raises the expected questions related to the potential for RESEARCHER BIAS
Schwartz and Zamboanga (2008) AIM
• Investigate the extent to which Berry's 4 ACCULTURATION STRATEGIES would be evident in a set of ACCULTURATION indices
Schwartz and Zamboanga (2008) METHOD
• Researchers used LATENT CLASS ANALYSIS (a form of statistical analysis), which creates categories from statistical analysis w/o any pre-existing assumptions about which categories emerge - the data clustering determines the categories
Schwarz and Zamboanga (2008) RESULTS
• MIXED SUPPORT for Berry's ACCULTURATION strategies because the statistical analysis yielded 6 categories, NOT 4, suggesting that the assimilation & integration categories could be further subdivided
• Separation, assimilation, & intégration (also known as biculturalism to some researchers) all clearly emerged from the analysis
• Some evidence of integration was found to be mixed w/ separation & assimilation, suggesting that Berry's categories are NOT early independent - they OVERLAP
Schwartz and Zamboanga (2008) CONCLUSION
• Some NEW categories should be CREATED in Berry's original model
Schwartz and Zamboanga (2008) STRENGTHS
• Found that Berry's ACCULTURATION categories were mostly validated, but may be in need of FURTHER DIFFERENTIATION
Schwartz and Zamboanga (2008) LIMITATIONS
• Study mostly FOCUSED on elements of surface culture, such as language acquisition
• Theorized that an emphasis on psychological functioning in a variety of domains could cause their statistical results to line up better w/ Berry's original model
Schwartz and Zamboanga (2008) ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• No major ethical concerns
Schwartz and Zamboanga (2008) METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• LIMITED by use of a UNIVERSITY POPULATION, which does NOT REPRESENT various socioeconomic backgrounds & does NOT reflect Hispanic populations w/ limited English proficiency
Schaller (1991) AIM
• Explain the origins of stereotyping
Schaller (1991) METHOD
• Participants were randomly assigned to be members of a group
• Presented w/ a series of statements that described members in both the group to which they had been assigned & the group that was not their group
• Statements describes both desirable & undesirable behaviors
Schaller (1991) RESULTS
• When participants were asked about their own group, they recalled STEREOTYPING statements that FAVORED their OWN group, indicating an IN-GROUP BIAS
• Recalled BETTER the NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES of the OUT-GROUP, focusing on the more NEGATIVE aspects of behavior, rather than the positive behaviors
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