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Natural Rights
Fundamental rights inherent to all individuals, not contingent on government or legislation.
Limited Government
A government structure where its actions are restricted by law, ensuring that individual rights are protected from government overreach.
Popular Sovereignty
The principle that the authority of a government is created and sustained by the consent of its people.
Republicanism
A political philosophy advocating for a government in which the authority rests with the people and their elected representatives.
Social Contract
An agreement where individuals consent to form a society and abide by common rules for mutual protection and benefit.
Participatory Democracy
A political system emphasizing the active role of citizens in decision-making processes.
Pluralist Democracy
A political system where multiple independent groups compete for power and influence, ensuring diverse representation.
Elite Democracy
a political system in which decisions are made by a small group of powerful and influential individuals, rather than being directly determined by the broader population.
Democracy
a system of government in which power is vested in the people, who rule either directly or through freely elected representatives.
Factions
groups of individuals whos opinions that may differ from those of the majority or other groups.
Federalism (Federal System)
a system of government in which power is divided and shared between a central (national) government and regional (state or provincial) governments.
Confederal System (Confederate)
a form of government in which independent states or regions join together in a loose alliance, delegating limited powers to a central authority while retaining most of their sovereignty and independence.
Unitary System
a form of government in which all legal and political power is centralized in the national or central government.
Representative Government / Republic
a form of government in which power rests with the people and their elected representatives, rather than a monarch or hereditary ruler.
Direct Democracy
a form of government in which citizens directly participate in decision-making by voting on laws, policies, and other important matters without relying on elected representatives.
Ratify
to formally approve, confirm, or validate a decision, agreement, or document, making it officially binding or effective.
Amend
to make changes, improvements, or corrections to a document, law, or agreement.
Bicameral Legislature
a government body with two separate chambers or houses that work together to create and pass laws. This structure is often designed to ensure a balance of power and represent different interests within a government.
Tyranny
oppressive and unjust use of power by a ruler or government
Federalists
someone who supports or advocates for federalism
Anti-Federalists
someone who doesn’t supports or advocates for federalism
Bill of Rights
the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution
Necessary and Proper Clause / Elastic Clause
a provision in Article I, Section 8 of the United States Constitution that grants Congress the power to make all laws which are needed for executing its enumerated powers.
Supremacy Clause
a provision in Article VI, Clause 2 of the United States Constitution that establishes the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties as the law of the land.
10th amendment
the final amendment in the Bill of Rights and states that any power not specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, is reserved for the states or the people
Enumerated powers / Expressed powers
powers explicitly granted to the federal government by the Constitution.
Implied powers
powers not explicitly stated in the U.S. Constitution but are inferred from the Necessary and Proper Clause (Article I, Section 8, Clause 18).
inherent powers
powers that are not specifically listed in the Constitution, but are essential for the federal government to function and maintain sovereignty.
concurrent powers
powers that are shared by both the federal government and state governments.
dual federalism
a political concept in which the federal and state governments operate within their own separate, clearly defined spheres of influence, with distinct powers and responsibilities.
cooperative federalism
a system in which the federal government and state governments work together to address common goals and issues, often sharing powers, responsibilities, and resources.
grants in aid
funds provided by the federal government to state or local governments (or sometimes private organizations) to support specific projects or initiatives.
devolution
the process by which power or authority is transferred from a central (federal) government to a lower (state or local) level of government.
categorical grants
a type of federal funds provided to state and local governments that can only be used for a specific purpose, as defined by federal law or regulations.
block grants
a type of federal fund given to state and local governments for a broad, general purpose. More flexible than categorical
formula grants
a type of federal grant-in-aid awarded to states or local governments based on a predetermined formula set by federal law or regulation.
conditions of aid
specific requirements, rules, or criteria set by the federal government that states, local governments, or organizations must meet in order to receive federal funding or grants.
funded mandates
requirements or regulations set by the federal government that compel state or local governments to carry out certain actions or enforce specific policies, while also providing the necessary federal funds to cover the cost of compliance.
unfunded mandates
directives or requirements imposed by the federal government on state or local governments, as well as private entities, without providing financial resources to cover the cost of implementing them.
fiscal federalism
the financial relationships and interactions between different levels of government (federal, state, and local) within a federal system, particularly regarding the allocation of resources, revenue collection, and the use of funds
full faith and credit
a principle that requires each state in the U.S. to recognize and enforce the public acts, records, judicial proceedings, and decisions of other states.
privileges and immunities clause
a provision in the U.S. Constitution that prohibits states from discriminating against citizens of other states in favor of their own residents.
extradition
the legal process by which one jurisdiction (usually a country or state) surrenders an individual who has been accused or convicted of a crime to another jurisdiction where the crime was allegedly committed, so that the individual can stand trial or serve their sentence.
linkage institution
structures that connect the government to the people, ensuring that public preferences are communicated to policymakers and that citizens can engage with the political process.
interest groups
are organizations that seek to influence government policy or public opinion on specific issues.
PACs
a type of organization formed to raise and spend money to influence the outcome of elections.
lobbyists
an individual or group that tries to influence the decisions of government officials, particularly legislators and policymakers, regarding specific issues, policies, or laws. a form of advocacy aimed at persuading government officials to adopt or reject specific policy proposals or legislative acts.
electioneering
the active efforts by individuals, organizations, or groups to influence the outcome of an election.
litigation
refers to the strategy of using the court system to influence public policy or advance their goals
grassroot lobbying
where ordinary citizens are encouraged to contact legislators or government officials to advocate for or against specific policies, laws, or issues.
free rider problem
when individuals benefit from a resource, service, or policy without contributing to its cost or effort.
amicus curiae briefs
meaning "friend of the court" in Latin, are legal documents submitted to a court by individuals or organizations that are not parties to a case but have a strong interest in the outcome. These aim to provide additional information, expertise, or perspectives to help the court make a more informed decision.
delegates
are individuals authorized or appointed to represent a group or constituency at a conference, convention, or decision-making body.
superdelegates
can support any candidate of their choosing, regardless of the voting outcome. individuals who are not bound by the results of the primary elections or caucuses.
caucus
a type of political meeting or gathering where members of a political party or movement come together to discuss and decide on party policies, select candidates for elections, or coordinate strategies for legislative action.
primary
an election in which voters select candidates from their political party to run in the general election, usually for presidential, congressional, or local office.
closed primary
a type of primary election in which only registered voters who are members of a specific political party can vote in that party's primary.
open primary
a type of primary election in which any registered voter, regardless of their political party affiliation, can participate.
blanket primary
a type of primary election in which voters can choose candidates from any party for each office on the ballot.
frontloading
the practice in which states schedule their primary elections or caucuses earlier in the election season, typically to have more influence in the selection of party nominees.
party platform
a formal set of principles, goals, and policies that a political party pledges to support and promote if it wins an election and forms a government.
Mc Govern Fraser Commission
a special commission created by the Democratic National Committee (DNC) in 1969 to reform the process by which the Democratic Party selects its presidential nominees.
press corp
a group of journalists, reporters, and media professionals who are collectively assigned to cover a particular organization, event, institution, or geographical area
sound bite
a brief, memorable, and often quotable excerpt from a longer statement or speech, typically lasting only a few seconds.
trial balloon
an idea, proposal, or policy that is intentionally floated by a politician, government official, or political organization to gauge the public's reaction before officially committing to it.
spin master/doctor
a person or political strategist who is skilled at manipulating the presentation of events, issues, or facts in order to shape public perception in a favorable way for a political figure, organization, or cause.
adversarial press
the role of the media in acting as a critical check on government actions, policies, and politicians.
equal time rule
a regulation in U.S. broadcast law that mandates broadcast television and radio stations to provide equal opportunities to political candidates, particularly those running for public office, to present their views or advertisements during election campaigns.
horse race journalism
a style of political reporting that focuses primarily on the competitive aspects of political campaigns or elections—essentially covering the race between candidates rather than diving deeply into their policies, ideas, or platforms.
federal communications commission
An independent agency of the U.S. government responsible for regulating interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable.
fec
An independent regulatory agency that enforces federal campaign finance laws, oversees donation limits, and ensures public disclosure of campaign financing.
super pacs
Political action committees that can raise and spend unlimited sums of money to advocate for or against political candidates, as long as they do not coordinate directly with campaigns.
hard money
Political contributions regulated by law through the Federal Election Commission, given directly to a candidate's campaign for use in specific elections.
soft money
Contributions made to political parties rather than specific candidates, often used for "party-building activities" and not regulated as strictly as hard money.
electorate
The body of individuals eligible to vote in an election.
motor voter act
A law designed to simplify and increase voter registration by allowing individuals to register to vote when applying for or renewing a driver's license.
political efficacy
A citizen's belief in their ability to influence government or the effectiveness of their participation in politics.
retrospective voting
Voting based on a candidate's or party's past performance rather than future promises.
two party system
A political system dominated by two major parties, such as the Democrats and Republicans in the U.S.
divided government
A situation where one party controls the presidency and another controls one or both houses of Congress, often leading to gridlock.
exit poll
A survey conducted immediately after voters leave polling stations to predict the outcome of an election and understand voter behavior.
party dealignment
A trend where voters increasingly abandon their previous partisan affiliations without forming new ones, leading to more independents.
ticket splitting
Voting for candidates from different political parties on the same ballot, such as voting for a Republican president and a Democratic senator.
realignment
A significant shift in the political system where new coalitions of voters form, leading to a long-term change in party dominance.
critical election
An election that signals a major political realignment through voter shifts and long-term changes in party coalitions.
plurality system
An electoral system in which the candidate with the most votes wins, even if they do not receive a majority of the votes.
incumbent
A person currently holding a political office who is seeking re-election.
political ideology
A set of beliefs about the role of government and politics that influences an individual's political attitudes and policies they support.
political socialization
The process by which individuals develop their political beliefs, values, and ideologies, often influenced by family, education, peers, and media.
polls
Surveys used to measure public opinion, predict election outcomes, or understand voter preferences and behavior.
random sample
A method used in polling to select a subset of individuals from a larger population, ensuring each person has an equal chance of being chosen to minimize bias.
bicameral legislature
A legislature with two chambers, such as the U.S. Congress, which consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives.
proportional representation
An electoral system where parties gain seats in proportion to the number of votes they receive.
constituent
A person represented by an elected official, such as a voter in a congressional district.
bill
A proposed law introduced in Congress for debate and approval.
incumbent
The current officeholder who is running for re-election.
franking privilege
The ability of members of Congress to send official mail to constituents without postage, using their signature instead.
17th amendment
An amendment to the U.S. Constitution that established the direct election of U.S. Senators by voters instead of being chosen by state legislatures.
apportionment
The process of distributing seats in the House of Representatives among the states based on population.
gerrymandering
The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor a particular political party or group.
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